Royal Regalia: Recent Papal Tiaras

The Roman Pontiffs, because their spiritual position is of greater importance than their political position (though sometimes it hasn’t seemed that way) have never had the sort of accoutrements than secular royals have had, these typically being a sword, a scepter and a crown, at least in western, Christian countries. However, there have still been some items of personal adornment that have distinguished the Bishops of Rome such as the “Fisherman’s Ring” (which is unique to each Pontiff), the red shoes and, most strikingly, the three-tiered crown or Papal Tiara. The oldest sort of unique papal ceremonial headgear dates back to the Dark Ages but there soon developed a sort of crown, originally a bullet or beehive-shaped object with a crown at the base. Later, a second crown was added and, in time, a third which became the traditional norm for hundreds of years. Popes would wear their crown at their coronation, of course, and certain other formal events but, it should be noted, were never liturgical wear other than on one occasion when Pope St. John XXIII wore his tiara at a special joint Catholic-Orthodox service.

The Palatine Tiara

The three crowns on the Papal Tiara can symbolize a number of things, from the triple Christian roles of prophet, priest and king to the Church militant, Church suffering and Church triumphant to the supreme authoritative position of the Pontiff as, “the ruler of the rulers of the world”, a phrase which was formerly used at the papal coronations. Most of the Papal Tiaras were destroyed when the French Revolution came to Italy but a new collection was begun as popes were often donated a Tiara from their home diocese. When Pope Bl. Pius IX lost his political position as ruler of central Italy, Catholic countries seemed to try to compensate for failing to go to war to defend his property by showing how much they still respected his spiritual authority by gifting him a Papal Tiara. He ultimately collected six Papal Tiaras, the most of any Pontiff. For a time, it became tradition to use the 1877 “Palatine Tiara” of Pope Bl. Pius IX at papal coronations. All of his successors were crowned with this Papal Tiara until the coronation of Pope Bl. Paul VI.

Tiara of Bl. Paul VI

Pope Bl. Paul VI was crowned with a very distinctive tiara made for him by his former archdiocese of Milan. However, his would be the last papal coronation to date as, at the end of the Second Vatican Council, Bl. Paul VI gave up his Papal Tiara as a gesture of humility, selling it to benefit the poor. It was bought by the Catholic Church in America and is currently on display in Washington DC at the Basilica of the National Shrine of the Immaculate Conception. This was the last Papal Tiara to ever be worn or, at least, the last to ever be worn publicly (who knows what the Popes try on for size behind the walls of the Vatican). However, old traditions do not ordinarily stop so suddenly and, other than the short-lived Pope John Paul I, every one of the Pontiffs since Pope Bl. Paul VI have still been given a Papal Tiara of their own from some group or another. Obviously, though it remains only as a symbol on the Vatican City coat-of-arms, the Papal Tiara is still the one symbol most associated with the papacy.

Tiara of St John Paul II

When elected to the throne of St Peter, Pope St John Paul II remarked on his immediate predecessor not having a coronation. He lamented that the Papal Tiara had come to be viewed in an incorrect way, yet, he made no effort to correct this other than pointing it out on this one occasion. In the same remarks he said that he too would not be having a coronation to mark his installation as Supreme Pontiff. While Pope Paul VI had done away with much of the traditional pomp and ceremony of the papal court, the reign of St. John Paul II saw occasional use of traditional finery but an explosion of extremely novel modes of dress for a Pope. It seemed to be the era of tie-dye vestments. However, though it remained unknown until long after his passing, Pope St. John Paul II did have a Papal Tiara of his own. It was made by unknown persons behind the “Iron Curtain” in Hungary and was smuggled out of the land of the Magyars to Rome. Although simple in style, it is still quite striking. The lack of lappets (representing the Old and New Testaments and traditionally featured on all bishops miters and Papal Tiaras) suggest it may have been made solely as an artistic work and was not intended to be worn at all. Who was responsible for its construction remains a mystery (as far as I know) and photos of it only emerged after the collapse of the Communist regimes in Eastern Europe. Whatever faithful Hungarians were responsible, I say God bless them for helping to carry on the tradition of every pope having a crown of his own.

Tiara of Pope Benedict XVI

With the death of St. John Paul II and the election of Pope Benedict XVI the era of the tie-dye papacy had certainly come to an end. Benedict XVI took a noticeably more traditional style in his dress and habits, however, unfortunately, that did not extend to the Papal Tiara. Benedict XVI reportedly inquired about having a coronation but was told that it would take too long to organize and come up with a proper ceremony on such short notice so that, effectively, it could not be done. I have no way of verifying that story, just relating what I heard but it seems like a lame excuse. Pope Benedict instead opted for a larger, more old-fashioned style of pallium (the wool band worn about the shoulders by popes and metropolitan archbishops) to be invested with at his inauguration, though it was later replaced with one more like those others wear but still slightly distinctive. However, the Papal Tiara was not only used but even removed from the papal coat-of-arms, replaced with an odd looking miter sporting three, connected, gold bands around it. This was designed by Deacon (now Cardinal) Andrea Cordero Lanza di Montezemolo. Pope Benedict XVI was not to end his reign without a tiara of his own though. In 2011, after a General Audience, Pope Benedict XVI was presented with a Papal Tiara by a group of German Catholics with a businessman named Dieter Philippi being behind the project, having employed a Bulgarian firm that makes liturgical headgear for the East Orthodox which makes it more likely than not that this Papal Tiara can actually be worn. Unfortunately, it was not, despite Benedict XVI being known for trying on all sorts of hats and reviving other forms of papal headgear, specifically the camauro, not seen since the days of Pope St John XXIII (though he did only wear it once).

Tiara of Pope Francis

The election of Pope Francis brought about a drastic change from the more traditional style of his predecessor. From the first day of his election, Pope Francis dispensed with traditional papal fashions along with other displays to highlight his humility in contrast to his predecessors such as refusing to live in the papal apartments at the Apostolic Palace and wearing black or brown shoes rather than the traditional red shoes meant to symbolize martyrdom. With the new standard for humility and simplicity set by Pope Francis, papal coronations seem firmly consigned to the history books and, needless to say, the Papal Tiara has remained absent from the papal coat of arms as well. Whether it was his decision to live in the equivalent of the Vatican ‘guest house’ to his preference for a compact car over the dreadfully named “Popemobile” much less the stately Sedia Gestatoria, Pope Francis has been known for his public displays of humility and renunciation of traditional finery. One would think that he would be the last Roman Pontiff who would wish to receive a Papal Tiara of his own, yet, he too has one. In 2016 Pope Francis was presented with a Papal Tiara by the President of the Assembly of the Republic of Macedonia. It was handmade for him by the nuns of the monastery of Rajcica of Ohrid pearls from a nearby lake. It is quite an exquisite Papal Tiara, obviously made with great care. Pope Francis has never worn it nor would any expect him too. In fact, it was stated at the time that those giving the gift are well aware that Papal Tiaras have become a thing of the past and obviously did not expect their gift to ever be used.

Pope Francis being presented with his tiara

The papacy has, in a very short time, outpaced even the progressive constitutional monarchies of liberal Europe in not only ceasing to have coronations but going so far as to remove their crowns from even symbolic use. Any pope could at any time choose to revive the old traditions, as the pope can generally do as he pleases and is not bound by the actions or words of his predecessors, but the way in which it was done makes this highly unlikely and unfortunately so in my opinion. Pope St John Paul II lamented that the Papal Tiara was, “…an object considered, wrongly, to be a symbol of the temporal power of the Popes” but nonetheless refrained from the use of one and, in that same remark at least seemed to imply that a clash with the virtue of humility was the reason. The portrayal of the abandonment of the Papal Tiara by Pope Paul VI as a symbol of the ‘renunciation of earthly glory’ thus set a standard that it would be very hard for a future Roman Pontiff to undo. By abandoning the Papal Tiara as a gesture of humility, how can any future Pope return to it without appearing vainglorious? It may be hard enough simply to move back in to the Apostolic Palace after the reign of Pope Francis without appearing to show vanity. And that, I think, underscores a more fundamental point about why the renunciation of the Papal Tiara was a mistake. In attempting to show that such “appearances” do not matter, they have, on the contrary, shown the extent to which “appearance” is all that matters.

Royal Regalia: Italy

The story of the royal regalia of the Kingdom of Italy can be a little confusing. There were, actually, two crowns, the most prominently featured of which was destroyed before the formation of the modern Kingdom of Italy while the other, which did and does still exist, was never used. The crown most people probably think of in relation to the Kingdom of Italy is the crown featured on the royal Italian coat-of-arms and the arms of the House of Savoy. This crown, along with the Savoy knot, was also used as the royal badge of the Kingdom of Italy. This was, however, properly speaking, a crown that existed only on paper and in artistic renderings during the life of the Kingdom of Italy. Usually known as the Savoy Crown, it was made when the House of Savoy first achieved royal status as the official crown of the Kingdom of Sardinia or Piedmont-Sardinia. It was the primary piece of a collection of crown jewels that were, sadly, destroyed during the war with France when Napoleon invaded Piedmont and captured Turin, forcing the House of Savoy to relocate to Sardinia. Since that time the Savoy Crown has never been replaced or replicated and no coronations were held for Savoy monarchs after that. However, the image of Savoy Crown continued to be used throughout the life of the Kingdom of Italy.

The other crown most associated with Italy is the very ancient and very sacred Iron Crown of Lombardy which was used by the medieval Kingdom of Italy. As stated elsewhere, it was used by Napoleon when he conquered northern Italy and later used by the Hapsburg Emperors of Austria as the crown of their Kingdom of Lombardy-Venetia. When the Austrians were forced out of northern Italy they took the Iron Crown with them to Vienna but, in a subsequent peace treaty after another war, it was turned over to the House of Savoy and placed back in its traditional resting place in Milan. It is noteworthy that all official documents from the Italian royal court refer to there being two crowns, the Crown of Savoy and the Iron Crown which was always referred to as the “crown of Italy”. No King of Italy ever had a coronation though there was some discussion about it. If it had been done, the Iron Crown of Lombardy would have been used. Unfortunately, because of the “Roman Question” the Pope had excommunicated King Victor Emmanuel II (along with everyone else who had anything to do with unification) and neither King Victor Emmanuel II nor King Umberto I wished to make use of the Iron Crown, which is a holy relic, while their status with the Church was in question.

Reproduction of the Iron Crown on the tomb of Umberto I

The excommunication of King Victor Emmanuel II was lifted just before his death and King Umberto I considered making use of the Iron Crown later in his life but never did so before his tragic assassination. The Iron Crown was carried, however, in his funeral procession. Talk about a coronation for King Victor Emmanuel III was quickly stopped. Because of the stand-off with the Church, any cleric who performed such a coronation would be putting his career in jeopardy. King Victor Emmanuel III was also far too disturbed by the terrible and unnatural death of his father to plan such a grand occasion and he was simply the type who was not inclined to grand displays of pomp and ceremony anyway, never being comfortable at large, public events. All of that had changed by the time King Umberto II formally came to the throne. The “Roman Question” had been settled and the Church was furiously backpedaling in the face of the upcoming referendum on a republic, trying to encourage the public to support the monarchy. It would have been perfectly acceptable for King Umberto II to have been crowned with the Iron Crown of Lombardy but, unfortunately, his reign was cut so short by the fraudulent referendum that made Italy a republic that there was never time to even consider such a ceremony.

Imperial Regalia: The Holy Treasures of Japan

Being an extremely unique culture it goes without saying that the regalia of the Japanese monarchy is unlike any other on earth. Whereas other monarchies, such as those in the western world, have bejeweled crowns, scepters and orbs in Japan, of course, there is nothing of the sort. There are, obviously, certain very elaborate and traditional robes that are worn at the formal enthronement of a new emperor (which is not exactly a coronation as there is no crown) but the Japanese monarchy has always been distinguished by its near total lack of glamour and finery. By the standards of Europe or, nearer to home, Imperial China, Japanese ceremonies have always been very austere and the palaces of Japanese emperors quite sparse in terms of elaborate decoration. This tradition came about in large part because of the extremely exalted nature of the monarchy. To put it in simple terms, for one so lofty as the Emperor, so high above all others, even the most grandiose displays would be insufficient; therefore none were required. When it comes to the Japanese monarchy, less has always been more and court ceremony is still extremely precise and choreographed but still simple and understated.

When it comes to the Imperial regalia, westerners should not think in terms of fabulously valuable jewels but rather in terms of holy relics; objects which are literally priceless, ancient and which have a spiritual rather than a monetary value attached to them. As the Japanese monarchy is the oldest in the world it is also not surprising that the Imperial regalia of Japan is the most ancient as well, having been in the possession of the Japanese Imperial Family for over a thousand years, longer than most any other monarchy in the world has even existed. The basic Imperial regalia, what westerners would call “Crown jewels” in their own countries, are finally only three specific items and these three items are about as mysterious as they are ancient. It is no exaggeration at all to say that these three pieces of Imperial regalia are absolutely THE most sacred and revered objects in all of Japanese history. In fact, they are held so precious that they are almost never in the same place at one time. In fact, they are kept under close guard in the strictest of secrecy, hidden in shrines far away from each other in diverse parts of Japan and are only brought together for the enthronement ceremonies of a new Emperor. In fact, they are kept in such strict and reverent isolation that, at various times, some people have wondered if they actually even exist. The level of spiritual significance attached to these items is so great that they have never been sketched or photographed and only a very select few of the highest Shinto priests and the Emperor himself have ever even seen them.

Speculative images of the Imperial regalia

The Imperial regalia consists of the Sword (Kusanagi), formerly the Ame no Murakumo or “Sword of the Gathering Clouds of Heaven” but today referred to as the “grass-cutting sword”. According to tradition it was taken from the body of an eight-headed dragon. Many believe the Sword to be kept at Atsuta Shrine in Nagoya but, of course, that has never been confirmed. There is the Mirror (Yata) or “Eight Hand Mirror” which was rebuilt from the ashes of the original after it was destroyed around a thousand years ago. It is commonly held to be kept at the Grand Shrine of Ise in Mie but, that too is unconfirmed. And there is the Great Jewel (Yasakani) which is believed to be a bead shaped rather like a comma known as a magatama and is possibly the most precious of all the regalia as it is believed to be the only one that has survived completely intact and unchanged over the millennia. The most common story for its location is the Imperial Palace in Tokyo but, again, that is unconfirmed. The sacred nature of the regalia comes from their legendary origins. According to tradition the Holy Treasures represent the sun goddess Amaterasu and were brought to earth by her grandson Ninigi-no-Mikoto, father of the Japanese Imperial Family to use their divine powers in pacifying the country. Since then, holding these Holy Treasures has been the “proof” that the Imperial Family are of divine descent and the only ones who can legitimately rule Japan.

The Great Shrine of Ise -and that is as close as you get

Each piece of the regalia is also associated with one of the three great virtues; the Great Jewel with benevolence, the Mirror with wisdom and the Sword with courage. Some have also alluded to them having a cosmic symbolism with the Great Jewel representing the moon, the Mirror the sun and the Sword the stars. However, the most important thing is their representation of the sun goddess and the “divine right” (to use a western phrase) of the Japanese Imperial line which has held firm over all of these thousands of years. They are certainly the most secretive, mysterious and highly revered symbols of monarchy in the world. Their sacred nature has been closely guarded to the present day with quite a scare coming in the dark days of the end of World War II when an Allied invasion seemed imminent. A special order was later found in which His Majesty the Showa Emperor instructed his Lord Keeper of the Privy Seal to take any measures necessary to protect the Holy Treasures and ensure that they were never defiled by the eyes or hands of a foreign invader. From what can be gathered, they would certainly be the most unprepossessing “crown jewels” in the world. In fact, to those unaware they would likely appear to be nothing more than worthless antiques. Yet, because of their age and origins, they are in fact so sacred as to be priceless with probably less than a handful of people by now in the world who have ever even seen them.

Royal Regalia: England

St Edward's Crown

When it comes to royal regalia England and Great Britain have a great deal to cover. The most significant pieces, however, are probably the St Edward’s Crown, the Imperial State Crown, the orb, sceptre and sword. The most prized is almost certainly St Edward’s Crown. It was made in 1661 for the coronation of King Charles II and is the official coronation crown of British monarchs. The name comes from the gold used to make the crown being left from the remains of the original crown of King St Edward the Confessor. Some debate remains about when exactly this crown was lost, some believing it to have been destroyed by Oliver Cromwell while others hold it to have disappeared earlier. However, it was recreated for the coronation of King Charles II and, so tradition goes, some of the materials used in the creation of the crown in the time of St Edward were left over from a crown used by King Alfred the Great. King James II and King William III were both crowned with the piece. It has not, however, been used at every subsequent coronation. The Hanoverian monarchs used a new crown made for King George I and since monarchs like Queen Victoria and King Edward VII found it too heavy and impractical, they did not use it either. However, it was the coronation crown used by King George V, King George VI (Edward VIII never having a coronation, George VI stepping in to the ceremony planned for him before his abdication) and Queen Elizabeth II. By order of Queen Elizabeth II the St Edward Crown replaced the Tudor Crown as the official symbol of the monarchy used on badges, coats of arms and the various insignia of servants of the Crown. So, it could be said that, despite being rarely used, the St Edward’s Crown is effectively “the” crown of the U.K. and Commonwealth Realms.

Imperial State Crown

The Imperial State Crown was made in 1937 to replace the crown made for Queen Victoria in 1838. It is an exact duplicate of the older crown but has been adjusted to be a better fit for Queen Elizabeth II. It incorporates two pearls once worn by Queen Elizabeth I, the Black Prince’s Ruby (which once belonged to Prince Edward of Woodstock) and the famous Cullinan II diamond or “Lesser Star of Africa”, the fourth largest polished diamond in the world. The crown is worn by the monarch after the coronation when leaving Westminster Abbey and is most often seen being worn by the monarch for the State Opening of Parliament. The Cullinan I diamond or “Great Star of Africa” is on the Sceptre with the Cross, one of two sceptres used by the British monarch at the coronation. It was made in 1661, redesigned a bit in 1910 and is carried in the right hand of the monarch during the coronation. In their left hand, he or she hold the Sceptre with the Dove, also made in 1661, representing the Holy Spirit. The Sovereign’s Orb, made in 1661, is a gold sphere bound by jewels around the center and another row across the top in the center of which is a cross to symbolize the rule of Christ over the world and the role of the British monarch as “Defender of the Faith”. It is held in the left hand when leaving Westminster Abbey.

When it comes to “the” sword, there are actually five that are used in the coronation ceremony. The one most think of as being “the” sword is probably the Great Sword of State which is carried by the Lord Great Chamberlain at the coronation and the State Opening of Parliament. It is the largest ceremonial sword of the British Crown jewels and is decorated with symbols of the constituent parts of the United Kingdom. The sword that is actually presented to the monarch during the coronation is the Jewelled Sword of Offering. It was made for the coronation of King George IV in 1821 and, as befitted that most grand and opulent of all British coronations, is reputed to be the most valuable sword on earth being covered in rubies, diamonds, sapphires and other precious stones. It is presented to the new monarch by the Archbishop of Canterbury to symbolize the royal power being used in the service of the church and true religion. Other swords used in the coronation are the Sword of Spiritual Justice, the Sword of Temporal Justice and the Sword of Mercy.

Tudor Crown (reproduction)

Another crown which is probably worth mentioning is the Tudor Crown, also called the Imperial Crown or King’s Crown. Most likely made for King Henry VII, the first monarch of the Tudor dynasty, it was used by King Henry VIII and was the coronation crown for King Edward VI, Queen Mary I, Queen Elizabeth I, King James I and King Charles I. Especially after the reign of James I, it came to be regarded as an almost sacred object. As an aside, the original Crown of St Edward was certainly regarded as such and was treated almost as a holy relic. Unfortunately, after the regicide of King Charles I in 1649 the republican potentate Oliver Cromwell had the crown destroyed, broken up and melted down as part of his eradication of all royal symbols. This was truly a great loss to the cultural legacy and history of England and Great Britain. However, because the crown had been so meticulously depicted in the many paintings of the Stuart reign (such as royal portraits) and because records still remained from the time of King Henry VIII of the jewels used in the crown, last year experts in Britain were able to recreate the crown exactly. The cost of this was paid by the HRP (Historic Royal Places) and it is now on display at the royal pew of the Chapel Royal in Hampton Court Palace.

MM Video: Crowns of the World

Royal Regalia: Symbols of Imperial Vietnam

The Imperial headdress

The royal regalia of Vietnam is, naturally, quite different from what most westerners would be familiar with, yet there are elements almost any monarchist would easily recognize. The Vietnamese did not have a “crown” in the way westerners would understand it (the crown becoming a very Christian symbol) though there was an elaborate headdress which could be referred to as such. The official costume of the emperors was elaborate and overflowing with symbolism unique to the Vietnamese culture. During the reign of the Nguyen Dynasty the ceremonial costumes of the court were greatly influenced by the historic fashions of the Ming Empire. For the emperor, of course, there was an elaborate robe with very deep sleeves, covered with auspicious symbols but all over a background color of “brilliant yellow” which was reserved for the exclusive use of the Emperor. At a time when most people went barefoot the imperial costume included an elaborate pair of high-topped boots. The brilliant yellow imperial robe was fastened by a jade-encrusted cummerbund and the Emperor would wear a special cap (or crown) decorated with nine golden dragons, nine being the imperial number, the closest to 10; the heavenly number. The Emperor would also hold a special jade scepter (also sometimes referred to as a baton) to symbolize his authority.

In full formal attire

There was, of course, no actual “coronation” in Vietnamese tradition but the formal enthronement served the same purpose. The new emperor would be given an ivory badge which would be worn on the right side of his robe that gave him access to the Golden Book where, at the start of his reign, his name would be officially recorded. The Emperor would then proceed to the Temple of the Ancestors to swear his oath of office at the altar of Emperor Gia Long, founder of the Nguyen Dynasty. The following morning the new Emperor would be seated on the Golden Dragon Throne in the Palace of Supreme Peace to receive the sign of loyalty of his people. There was an elaborately decorated “sword of state” that most would find familiar, symbolizing the duty of the Emperor to protect his people. The most significant piece of royal regalia was the imperial seal. There would be one primary seal and several smaller seals for more casual use. It was the imperial seal which represented the authority of the Emperor, it attached an almost sacred significance to any document on which it was used. During high festivals the imperial seals would be symbolically “hidden” to stop time for the celebrations.

The original seal used by the Nguyen Dynasty came from the Great Qing Empire in Peking along with the recognition by the Manchu Dynasty of the Nguyen right to rule Vietnam. As with many neighboring countries, China and Vietnam had a relationship whereby the Vietnamese recognized the senior position of Imperial China, and would call on China for help if attacked by an outside force, while Vietnam remained independent and self-governing. For the sake of peaceful relations, the rulers of Vietnam would deal with Peking as “kings” while dealing with their own people as “emperors”. This all changed, however, when the French arrived and when conflict broke out the Vietnamese Emperor Tu Duc called on the Qing Empire for help. The resulting Sino-French War saw China defeated and, as a result, to symbolize who the new power was in the neighborhood, the French confiscated and destroyed the original imperial seal granted by the Qing court at the start of the reign of the Nguyen Dynasty. They replaced it with another of course, of traditional design, to symbolize that France was the new protecting power or feudal overlord to put it another way.

Handing over the Seal and Sword

It was this seal, along with the imperial sword, that Emperor Bao Dai handed over in 1945 at the height of the August Revolution to the representatives of the new provisional republican government when he abdicated. In 1952, during the First Indochina War, when the French attacked Hanoi the republican government buried the sword and seal at the sight of a government office before fleeing the city. The French dug up the sword which had been broken into three pieces and handed these over to the Empress Dowager Tu Cung, the Emperor’s mother. She later, it is believed, handed these over to one of the imperial concubines, Mong Diep. The imperial seal was handed over to the Museum of History but was later stolen. In 1953 the former Emperor Bao Dai, who was then “Chief of State” entrusted the seal to his concubine Mong Diep who took it to France and presented it to the Empress Nam Phuong and the Prince Imperiale Bao Long. In 1982 the Prince Imperiale handed the seal back to his father. Since that time, there has been no word as to its whereabouts.

The last Emperor with the seal in France

Royal Regalia: The Iron Crown of Lombardy

It may not look like much compared to some others, but the Iron Crown of Lombardy is one of the most significant symbols of monarchy in western Christendom. It is called the “Iron Crown” because of a small, narrow strip of iron that circles the interior of the piece. What is significant about this is that, according to tradition, this circle of iron was beaten out from one of the nails used at the crucifixion of Jesus Christ. That is where the story of the Iron Crown begins. As with most of the relics association with Christ and the crucifixion the nail was said to have been found by St Helena and given to her son the Roman Emperor Constantine the Great (the first Roman Emperor to be a Christian) who, so the story goes, later sent it to the Queen of the Lombards who were converted to Christianity. At some point the nail was incorporated into a crown though no one is sure exactly when. Some say Emperor Charlemagne was crowned King of the Lombards using the Iron Crown while others maintained it was not made until after his time. Kept in the Cathedral of Monza, near Milan, it was the most sacred and well known symbol of the Kingdom of the Lombards which grew up following the fall of Rome.

When the Holy Roman Empire was created the Kings of Germany would go to Rome to be crowned “Emperor of the Romans” by the Pope. On the way they would usually stop in Monza to be crowned “King of Italy” with the Iron Crown of Lombardy. Such famous historical monarchs as Emperor Frederick Barbarossa and Emperor Charles V were crowned with the Iron Crown of Lombardy. In 1805 Napoleon Bonaparte had himself crowned “King of Italy” with the Iron Crown of Lombardy, a title he placed second in importance only to that of “Emperor of the French”. Later he also founded the Order of the Iron Crown as the premier chivalric order of his new Italian realm. That order would be maintained even by the enemies of Napoleon. In the course of the Napoleonic Wars the area of Lombardy was annexed by the Empire of Austria and Emperor Francis I revived Napoleon’s Order of the Iron Crown as his own. The Emperor also took possession of the actual Iron Crown itself though he made no use of it. The last time it was to be used for a coronation would be in 1838.

Ferdinand I became Emperor of Austria in 1835. Prior to that time he had already been crowned King of Hungary in 1830. In 1838 he had his coronation, using the Iron Crown of Lombardy as King of Lombardy-Venetia, at that time a part of the Austrian Empire. Incidentally, he was also married to Maria Anna of Savoy, daughter of King Vittorio Emanuele I of Piedmont-Sardinia, giving him a further Italian connection. Ferdinand would also be the last monarch to be crowned King of Bohemia though his successors on the Hapsburg throne continued to use the title. When Ferdinand abdicated as Emperor of Austria the throne of Lombardy-Venetia along with the rest passed to his nephew Francis Joseph I. There was never another coronation with the Iron Crown and Francis Joseph appointed his brother, Archduke Ferdinand Maximilian, Viceroy of Lombardy-Venetia. He would be the last to hold that position.

The Iron Crown was featured on the Savoy arms

In the Second War of Italian Independence control of Lombardy passed to King Vittorio Emanuele II of Piedmont-Sardinia who, in 1861, became the first King of Italy. Before surrendering Lombardy the Austrians removed the Iron Crown from Milan and took it to Vienna, however, no one was to forget this ancient and sacred symbol of Italian kingship. In 1866 Austria was defeated in the Third Italian War of Independence (a parallel of the Austro-Prussian or Seven Weeks War) in which Venetia was ceded to the Kingdom of Italy. Also included in the peace stipulations was the return of the Iron Crown of Lombardy which was duly handed over to the House of Savoy and returned to its traditional resting place in Milan. The Savoy monarchs never had a coronation but the Iron Crown was used as a symbol, being carried in the funeral cortege of King Vittorio Emanuele II of Italy, probably to highlight his role in evicting the Austrians from northern Italy and uniting the country. The Iron Crown of Lombardy still rests in the Duomo of Monza in the outskirts of Milan (also known as the Basilica of St John the Baptist) along with a collection of historic Christian art and artifacts. The Crown, however, is by far the most famous of the pieces on display there.

Royal Regalia: Denmark

The royal regalia of Denmark is quite magnificent, befitting the oldest monarchy in Europe. The primary objects are three crowns, a scepter, an orb, the sword of state and an ampulla (a vessel of ancient Roman origin for holy oil). The royal regalia of Denmark is housed in Rosenborg Castle in Copenhagen and a royal residence until 1710. The first crown is the crown of King Christian IV, made in 1596 for his coronation. It is made of gold, enamel, cut gems and pearls with symbols representing piety, fortitude, justice and charity. It was last used for the coronation of King Frederick III in 1648. The second crown is the crown of King Christian V (son of Frederick III) and is most associated with the era of the absolute monarchy (though there was no coronation). It was made in Copenhagen in 1671 and is gold, decorated with sapphires, spinels, garnets and a generous amount of diamonds, topped by a very large ruby. That last crown is the crown of the Queen consort made in 1731 at the request of Queen Sophia Magdalen of Brandenburg-Kulmbach, consort to King Christian VI, who wanted a new crown.

The scepter was made for the coronation of King Frederick III in 1648 and is gold with enameled ends and decorated with diamonds. The scepter symbolizes the supreme earthly power of the king. The orb was made in Hamburg for the coronation of King Frederick III in 1648 and symbolized the supremacy of Christ over the world. The sword of state is kept in a red velvet-covered scabbard decorated with the royal crests with gems decorating the grip and cross guard and the scabbard decorated with diamonds. It was given to the future King Frederick III by his father King Christian IV as a wedding gift and symbolized the royal power to guard the nation and uphold the law. The ampulla was also made for the 1648 coronation, in Copenhagen and is gold with an enamelled lid decorated with diamonds.

In the old days, when it was recognized that a monarch ruled in conjunction with the clergy and nobility (and kings were nominally “elected”), representatives of these bodies would actually crown the monarch at the coronation ceremony. This tradition was upheld until the creation of the absolute monarchy by Frederick III. After that time, coronations were no longer held, though the crown was still worn, and the place of the coronation taken by the anointing with holy oil. The greater emphasis placed on that custom being to reiterate the “Divine Right of Kings”. However, when Denmark went in a more liberal direction with the adoption of the Constitution of 1849, which made Denmark a constitutional monarchy, the anointing ceremony was discontinued. The current monarch, HM Queen Margrethe II, began her reign simply by being acclaimed as Queen by the Prime Minister on the balcony of Christiansborg Palace. The royal regalia, or certain pieces, are still displayed on very formal royal occasions such as at the funeral of a monarch.

New Tiara for the Pope

First, a nod of the head and dug of the forelock to Ad Orientem where I first learned of this. HH Pope Benedict XVI has been presented with his own papal tiara, paid for by German businessman Dieter Philippi and constructed by artisans in Sofia, Bulgaria, symbolic of the hope emphasized by Benedict XVI for greater unity between the eastern and western Churches (always a good thing in my book). It is even odds if the Pope will ever actually make use of his new tiara but I would consider it only polite to do so -don't want to seem unappreciative of such a gift right? The absence of a papal coronation in recent decades is one of the losses I mourn in western civilization. Of course, as most know, Pope Benedict XVI has adopted a much more "traditional" style compared to his predecessors on the Petrine throne and it was said that he had wanted to have a coronation but was told that it would be impossible to organize at such short notice after his election. So, next time, -no excuses! Plan it out in advance and now there is one more crown to choose from to use in the coronation. I would like to think that Benedict XVI would find occasion to wear this one but, I also don't want to get my hopes up. For his eventual successor, to be crowned with Benedict's tiara would be a nice tribute to the Pontiff would it not?

Bl. John Paul II and his Hungarian tiara

As most know it was Pope Paul VI who was the last to have a coronation and the last to make use of the papal tiara (he surrendered his at the end of Vatican II). The smiling, short-lived Pope John Paul I had none and Blessed Pope John Paul II said that, while it was proper to have a coronation, it was not appropriate to do so at his time because of the recent, tragic loss of his predecessor. However, not many know that Bl. John Paul II did have a tiara of his own. It was more traditional than that of Paul VI but still rather simple when compared to others as it was made in Hungary, behind the "Iron Curtain", smuggled out and presented to the Pontiff as a symbol of the determined faith of the Catholic Hungarians. It was never worn of course and its existence only made public after the end of the communist regime. Pope Benedict's tiara was presented to the Pontiff at his Wednesday general audience by a delegation of Catholic and Orthodox pilgrims in the name of Christian unity.

Benedict XVI presented with his tiara

Royal Regalia: Scotland

The royal regalia of Scotland includes the Crown of Scotland, the royal Sceptre and the Sword of State. The crown was created from an older version for James V King of Scots in 1540. It was used to crown all subsequent kings of Scotland until Charles II. After the overthrow of the British Monarchy by Oliver Cromwell the republican dictator intended to destroy the Scottish crown jewels just as he had the English, but some loyal Scots hid them away and thus they survived to crown Charles II. The royal sceptre was gift to James IV King of Scots by HH Pope Alexander VI in 1494. It includes numerous specifically Catholic Scottish symbols such as the Virgin Mary and St Andrew. The Sword of State was a gift to the same Scottish king by HH Pope Julius II in 1507 and displays images of Sts Peter and Paul. The Scottish royal regalia was displayed at the coronation of Queen Elizabeth II but not actually used. The items are kept in Edinburgh Castle in Scotland.