Prefiguring Salvation -- Manna in the Desert and the Bread From Heaven, Part II

The Master of Edward IV, The Last Supper and Isrealites Collecting Manna

From Speculum humanae salvationis

Flemish (Bruges), c. 1485

Paris, Bibliotheque nationale de France

MS Francais 6275, fol. 17v

This is the second of a series of three articles regarding the interpretation of the miracle of the manna and its relationship to Jesus' statements about his flesh as the bread from heaven.  Please be sure to read all three.  A link to the first essay is provided in the first paragraph of text below the quotation from Saint John.  A link to the third essay is found at the end of this essay.








“The Jews murmured about Jesus because he said,

"I am the bread that came down from heaven, "

and they said,

"Is this not Jesus, the son of Joseph?

Do we not know his father and mother?

Then how can he say,

'I have come down from heaven'?"

Jesus answered and said to them,

"Stop murmuring among yourselves.

No one can come to me unless the Father who sent me draw him,

and I will raise him on the last day.

It is written in the prophets:

They shall all be taught by God.

Everyone who listens to my Father and learns from him comes to me.

Not that anyone has seen the Father

except the one who is from God;

he has seen the Father.

Amen, amen, I say to you,

whoever believes has eternal life.

I am the bread of life.

Your ancestors ate the manna in the desert, but they died;

this is the bread that comes down from heaven

so that one may eat it and not die.

I am the living bread that came down from heaven;

whoever eats this bread will live forever;

and the bread that I will give is my flesh for the life of the world."

John 6:41-51 (Gospel for the Nineteenth Sunday in Ordinary Time, Year B, August 12, 2018)

In the prior essay, Prefiguring Salvation – Manna in the Desert and the Bread from Heaven, Part I, we looked at the first images in Christian art that combined the image of the Israelites receiving the gift of manna from heaven and the miracles in which Jesus is said to have prefigured, or hinted at, his power over matter and pointed forward to the greatest miracle of all, his gift of himself in the Eucharist.  We also examined instances in which the scene of God's salvation through the provision of manna and quail in the desert was often combined with other Old Testament scenes that also carried, for Christians, an additional meaning, referring to Christ's sacrificial self-offering.

The church spreads the words of John the Evangelist over the Gospels read on four successive Sundays during this month of August in Year B (or Liturgical Year 2018).1  We continue in our second essay to look at those images that combine the incident of the manna with New Testament scenes that reveal its deeper meaning.  

The Miracle of the Manna Paired with New Testament Scenes

By far the largest number of pairing with images of the fall and gathering of the manna are made with New Testament images that underline Jesus as the living Bread of Life, given for all at his death and still available to his living disciples today.

In Books

These images were frequently used in liturgical books and in prayer books and, during the middle ages and early Renaissance periods, in works that were popular with a largely still illiterate or minimally literate public, where instruction was given through the use of images. These were popular works like the Speculum humanae salvationis and the Biblia Pauperum, which survive in huge quantities that testify to their immense popularity.

Last Supper and Gathering of Manna
From Speculum humanae salvationis
Italian (Bologna), c. 1350-1400
Paris, Bibliotheque nationale de France
MS Arsenal 593 [ff. 1-42], fol. 18

Master of the Hours of Margaret of Cleves,Abraham and Melchizedek, The Last Supper, The Fall of Manna
From Biblia pauperum
Dutch, c. 1405_
London, British Library
MS King's 5, fol. 10

The Rambures Master, Abraham and Melchisedec, the Last Supper, The Gathering of Manna
From Biblia pauperum
French (Amiens), c.1470
The Hague, Meermano Museum
MS RMMW 10 A 15, fol. 28v

The Isrealites Collecting Manna and the Eucharist in a Monstrance
From a Book of Hours
Flemish (Tournai), 1535
The Hague, Koninklijk Bibliotheek
MS KB 74 G 9, fol. 88v-89r

Here the equation of the manna with the Eucharist, as experienced by the Christian believer, is made pointedly manifest.  The scene of the collection of the miraculous manna is paired, not with the scene of the Last Supper, but with the consecrated Host displayed for adoration in a monstrance.  It is interesting that the date of this Book of Hours is 1535, almost 20 years after the date of Luther's famous 95 Theses, and therefore well within the opening rounds in the debate over the nature of the Eucharist between Catholics and Protestants.  By replacing the traditional scene of the Last Supper with the consecrated Host, in the monstrance, the painter and his or her patron were taking a stand for the Catholic belief.

In Large Scale Paintings

Even more importantly, the pairings with New Testament scenes often formed part of the surroundings for a another, often central image (for an altarpiece, for example).  The images surrounding the main image, of the Last Supper, the Crucifixion or the Supper at Emmaus, for instance, would frequently include both the Old Testament “foreshadowing” and the related and the New Testament scenes.   The surrounding images could be found in the other panels of an altarpiece with foldable arms or in the predella (area below the main image) in those that are stationary. 

Dieric Bouts the Elder, Altarpiece of the Holy Sacrament
Dutch, c. 1464-1467
Leuven, Sint-Pieterskerk

Surrounding the central image of the Last Supper are scenes that prefigure aspects of the Eucharistic mystery:  the meeting between Abraham and Melchisedek and the Passover Meal on the left side; the gathering of the Manna and the angel urging Elijah not not give up hope in his desert wanderings.  The Eucharist is our offering of thanksgiving to God, it is the sign of our salvation, it is our spiritual food that gives us hope for the future.

Ercole de' Roberti, Last Supper
Door from a Tabernacle
Italian, c. 1490s
London, National Gallery

Ercole de' Roberti, Isarealites Gathering Manna
Italian, c. 1490s
London, National Gallery

This painting, of Israelites gathering manna, forms the predella just below the tabernacle door of the Last Supper shown above.  

Antwerp Mannerist Painter, Altarpiece with Last Supper Scene set between the Meeting of Abraham and Melchisedek
and the Miracle of the Manna
Flemish, c. 1515-1520
New York, Metropolitan Museum of Art

Follower of Pieter Coecke van Aelst,  The Pagny Altarpiece in the open position
Flemish, c. 1532-1535
Philadelphia, Museum of Art

(The Pagny Altarpiece (above) whose wings were come from the workshop of Pieter Coecke van Aelst, one of the leading Flemish Mannerist painters, depicts events from the life of Christ and his mother, the Virgin Mary.  The narratives run from left to right, with those from the life of Mary on the lower of the two levels.  It begins at the far lower left wing with the Annunciation and runs across the entire span of the altarpiece with the Visitation, the Adoration of the Shepherds, the Presentation in the Temple, the Adoration of the Magi, The Massacre of the Innocents and the Rest on the Flight into Egypt.  The upper level includes scenes from the Passion, beginning at the upper left with the Betrayal of Christ, Christ Before Pilate, the Way of the Cross, the Crucifixion, the Deposition, the Entombment and the Resurrection.  When closed the wings depict events from the life of Christ, such as the Baptism and Miracles.  The predella, at the bottom, which remains the same whether the wings are open or shut, is our concern.  Its central motif is the Last Supper, with the Meeting of Abraham and Melchisedek on the left and the Israelites collecting manna on the right.) 

Or depictions of the gift of manna and its Old and New Testament parallels may be found as images on the walls of churches or chapels, near the altar.  

Tintoretto, The Miracle of the Manna
Italian, c. 1577
Venice, Scuola Grande di San Rocco

Tintoretto, The Last Supper
Italian, c. 1579-1581
Venice, Scuola Grande di San Rocco

Giovanni Battista Tiepolo, Isrealites Gathering Manna
Italian, c. 1740-1742
Verolanuova, Parochial Church

Giovanni Battista Tiepolo, Sacrifice of Melchizedek
Italian, c. 1740-1742
Verolanuova, Parochial Chruch

They might also be found as images on tapestries and even on the vestments of the priests celebrating the Mass.  

After Heironymus Wierix, Chasuble with Gathering of Manna
Dutch, 1570
New York, Metropolitan Museum of Art

Tapestry After Design by Alessandro Allori, Gathering of Manna
Italian, c. 1595-1596
New York, Metropolitan Museum of Art

The New Testament reference is underlined by the Eucharistic symbol of the Host and Chalice at the center of the top border.

Peter Paul Rubens, Gathering of Manna
Flemish, c. 1625
Sarasota (FL), The Ringling Museum

Pedagogical Uses of the Parallels with Old and New Testament Scenes

In a certain sense, all of the combinations of the episode of the miraculous feeding of the Jews in the desert, which we have described above, can be considered have an educational purpose in a society which was largely illiterate or semi-literate.  As literacy grew, the teaching can be seen to have left the walls (though never completely) and transferred itself into books.  Printed books could more easily reach far more people than a single manuscript could ever hope to do, and at far less cost.  Printed works, both luxurious and commonplace, continued to carry these ideas. 

So, for instance, we have an exquisite 17^th-century work, such as the emblem book titled La vérité à la place des ombres, prepared for the Duchesse de Montpensier, cousin of Louis XIV, in which printing and hand illumination work well together.  In the book, an entire section, pages 96 through 138 are devoted to La manne, figure de la sacreé Eucharistie. 

La Manne figure de la sacreé Eucharistie
From La vérité à la place des ombres
French, 1679
New York, Pierpont Morgan Library
MS M21, fol. 92r

Manna Falling in the Camp
From La vérité à la place des ombres
French, 1679
New York, Pierpont Morgan Library
MS M21, fol. 106r

Israelites Gathering Manna
From La vérité à la place des ombres
French, 1679
New York, Pierpont Morgan Library
MS M21, fol. 114r

Israelites Taste the Manna
From La vérité à la place des ombres
French, 1679
New York, Pierpont
MS M21, fol. 122r

Israelites Eating the Manna
From La vérité à la place des ombres
French, 1679
New York, Pierpont Morgan Library
MS M21, fol. 138r

Manna Gathered for the Altar
From La vérité à la place des ombres
French, 1679
New York, Pierpont Morgan Library
MS M21, fol. 130r

Later Examples

Nor did the combination of Eucharistic references to Old Testament pre-figuration in churches for purposes of education and meditation end with the Baroque period.

From approximately 200 years after printing of the book above, we have a certificate of the Sacraments of Initiation for a young person named Leblanc (the first name is difficult to read), who was baptized in February 1880, received First Holy Communion on April 24, 1892 and was Confirmed a couple of weeks later, on May 4, 1892.2

Souvenir of First Holy Communion
French, 1892
Nuits-Saint-Georges, Musée municipal

This particular certificate is a virtual Catechism lesson in Eucharistic iconography.  The Paschal Lamb is the topmost item.  At the center is the Last Supper.  Surrounding this image are:  at the top, the Passover (left), the Manna in the desert (right).  Immediately below the image of the Last Supper is that of the Pelican in its piety, a powerful symbol of Christ’s Passion and of His Charity.  It was believed that, when food was scarce, pelicans used their beaks to pierce their own breasts so that their chicks could drink their blood for nourishment.  To either side of the Pelican are two levels of images.  Those on the upper layer are drawn from the New Testament miracles of Jesus.  On the left is the miracle of Cana, where Jesus turned water into wine.  On the right is the miracle of the loaves and fishes, where Jesus fed 5,000 with a few fish and loaves of bread.  Those on the lower layer depict the sacraments to which the certificate pertains.  On the left is Baptism, where a baby, in the arms of his or her godmother is being baptized.  On the right, is Confirmation, where a bishop anoints the head of a young man, as his sponsor upholds him. Such certificates were produced in thousands and continue to be.  A small amount of research on the internet revealed prices running from $25 to $50 for a pack of 100.  Today, you can even buy (or create) one of your own and print it!

When members of the Congregation of the Blessed Sacrament were planning the decoration of their first church building in the United States, back in 1910 in New York, they turned to the didactic themes that had served so well throughout the history of Christian art in the West.  As their primary focus for mission is the Eucharist, they chose to present the moments in the life of Christ that either forecast the gift of himself in the Eucharist or its pre-figuration in both the Old and New Testaments.

The principal decoration for their church of Saint Jean Baptiste in New York is its main altar and its windows.  The windows were commissioned from the atelier of Charles Lorin in Chartres, France and executed between 1910 and 1914.  Trapped in Europe during the First World War, where they were kept underground to protect them from shelling and early aerial bombardment, they were not placed in the windows until 1920.  

Charles Lorin Atelier, Marriage Feast at Cana
French, c. 1912-1914
New York, Eglise Saint Jean Baptiste
Lower level nave

Charles Lorin Atelier, Sacrifice of Melchisedech
French, c. 1912-1914
New York, Eglise Saint Jean Baptiste
Upper level nave

In the church, the New Testament activities are shown in the widows of the nave, chapels and apse, the spaces inhabited by the congregation and clergy.  The corresponding Old Testament scenes appear above them.  For more on this, please see “The Charles Lorin Stained Glass Windows at St. Jean Baptiste Church, New York”, where they are described in greater detail with multiple pictures.

Charles Lorin Atelier, Last Supper
French, c. 1912-1914
New York, Eglise Saint Jean Baptiste
Lower level apsidal chapel

Charles Lorin Atelier, First Passover
French, c. 1912-1914
New York, Eglise Saint Jean Baptiste
Upper level apsidal chapel

Charles Lorin Atelier, Gathering of Manna
French, c. 1912-1914
New York, Eglise Saint Jean Baptiste
Upper level apsidal chapel

Continued further with Prefiguring Salvation -- Manna in the Desert and the Bread From Heaven, Part III.  Please read all parts of this study to understand all the aspects of this iconography.

Link to Part I: Prefiguring Salvation – Manna in the Desert and the Bread from Heaven, Part I,
___________________________________________________________________

1.  These readings are: 

• Eighteenth Sunday in Ordinary Time – John 6:24-35  
• Nineteenth Sunday in Ordinary Time – John 6:41-51
• Twentieth Sunday in Ordinary Time – John 6:51-58                                                                  
• Twenty-first Sunday in Ordinary Time – John 6: 60-69

2.  The late age for the reception of First Communion seem strange to us, after 100 or so years of reception occurring around the age of 7-9.  However, 12 was pretty much the norm for the period in which this certificate was issued.  The reforms of Pope Pius X were still approximately 20 years in the future.

© M. Duffy, 2018

Excerpts from the Lectionary for Mass for Use in the Dioceses of the United States of America, second typical edition © 2001, 1998, 1997, 1986, 1970 Confraternity of Christian Doctrine, Inc., Washington, DC. Used with permission. All rights reserved. No portion of this text may be reproduced by any means without permission in writing from the copyright owner.

Scripture texts in this work are taken from the New American Bible, revised edition © 2010, 1991, 1986, 1970 Confraternity of Christian Doctrine, Washington, D.C. and are used by permission of the copyright owner. All Rights Reserved. No part of the New American Bible may be reproduced in any form without permission in writing from the copyright owner.

Prefiguring Salvation –Manna in the Desert and the Bread From Heaven, Part I

The Master of the Hours of Margaret of Cleves,Fall of Manna
From Biblia pauperum
Dutch, c. 1405
London, British Library
MS King's 5, fol. 10

This is the first of a series of three articles regarding the interpretation of the miracle of the manna and its relationship to Jesus' statements about his flesh as the bread from heaven.  Please be sure to read all three.  Links to the second and  third essays are found at the end of this essay.

















“When the crowd saw that neither Jesus nor his disciples were there,

they themselves got into boats

and came to Capernaum looking for Jesus.

And when they found him across the sea they said to him,

"Rabbi, when did you get here?"

Jesus answered them and said,

"Amen, amen, I say to you,

you are looking for me not because you saw signs

but because you ate the loaves and were filled.

Do not work for food that perishes

but for the food that endures for eternal life,

which the Son of Man will give you.

For on him the Father, God, has set his seal."

So they said to him,

"What can we do to accomplish the works of God?"

Jesus answered and said to them,

"This is the work of God, that you believe in the one he sent."

So they said to him,

"What sign can you do, that we may see and believe in you?

What can you do?

Our ancestors ate manna in the desert, as it is written:

He gave them bread from heaven to eat."

So Jesus said to them,

"Amen, amen, I say to you,

it was not Moses who gave the bread from heaven;

my Father gives you the true bread from heaven.

For the bread of God is that which comes down from heaven

and gives life to the world."

So they said to him,

"Sir, give us this bread always."

Jesus said to them,

"I am the bread of life;

whoever comes to me will never hunger,

and whoever believes in me will never thirst."

John 6:24-35 (Gospel for the Eighteenth Sunday in Ordinary Time, Year B, August 5, 2018)

On the eighteenth Sunday in Ordinary Time, the church began a series of Gospel readings, extending over the next three Sundays, that tell us of the disciples’ reaction to Jesus’ revelations regarding his intent to share his eternal life with humanity.1  Several times he tells them how, through his self-sacrifice and through his establishment of the sacrament of the Holy Eucharist, he will accomplish this.  He offers them the “true bread from heaven”, which is himself, his own flesh and blood, and does this through reference to the account of one of the miracles given by God to the Israelites during their forty years of wandering.  These miracles, found in Genesis, Chapters 16 and 17, and are manna and quail, both of which God gives them from the sky, and water from the barren rock, struck by Moses at God’s command (Exodus 17:3-7). 

Isrealites Gathering Manna
From Weltchronik by Rudolf von Ems
German (Regensburg), c. 1400-1410
Los Angeles, J. Paul Getty Museum
MS 33, fol. 81v

In this first of the series of Gospel readings the scene for this teaching is set immediately after Jesus has miraculously fed 5,000 people with just a few loaves of bread and some fish.  People are, naturally, drawn to him, hoping to get some more, hoping to see the miracle repeated, hoping to see this newest prophet with the amazing powers.  Just hoping…..

Eager to witness a miracle they goad him by asking “What can you do? Our ancestors ate manna in the desert, as it is written: He gave them bread from heaven to eat." (John 6:30-31) In fact, the Church has chosen the passage from Exodus which presents this exact story, as the first reading for the same Mass of the eighteenth Sunday in Ordinary Time.  “The whole Israelite community grumbled against Moses and Aaron. The Israelites said to them, "Would that we had died at the LORD's hand in the land of Egypt, as we sat by our fleshpots and ate our fill of bread!  But you had to lead us into this desert to make the whole community die of famine!" (Exodus 16:2-3)

In answer Jesus promises them “true bread from heaven” Later, he will make clear that this “true bread” is his own Body and Blood, something that many of them will find hard to understand or to believe in, just as many have struggled with trying to come to terms with this right up to the present day, a struggle that can only be ended by trust in God’s Word.

The connection between the manna of the Old Testament and the Eucharist of the New Testament is an old one, going back to Jesus himself in these Gospel quotations. Many times the Gospels suggest that he mentioned the episode of the manna in preparing his disciples for the gift they would receive at the Last Supper, along with the command to “Do this in memory of me.”

The Miracle of the Manna in Christian Art

It also has, as we shall see, a long tradition in the history of Christian art.  Early Christian art often called attention to pre-figurations of Jesus’ actions that can be found in the Old Testament.  One favorite topic was the story of Jonah and the Whale.  The three days Jonah spent in the whale’s belly was equated to the time Jesus spent in the tomb before the Resurrection.  Other Old Testament scenes were also seen as pre-figurations of the life and ministry of Jesus. 

In the fourth decade of the fifth century, AD 432, the newly built church of Santa Sabina in Rome received a set of wooden doors carved with scenes from the Old and New Testaments.  These doors still survive in place today, miraculous witnesses to more than 1,500 years of prayer and devotion, but also of wars and “renovations”.  One of the most famous panels on the doors is the very first representation of the Crucifixion.  Another, less well known set of panels depicts three miracles of Jesus, including the feeding of the 5, 000 and the Miracle of Cana, while its companion depicts the Miracles of Moses, including the miracle of the Manna in the desert and the water from the rock.

 

Moses in the Wilderness, Miracle of the Quail,
Miracle of the Manna, Water from the Rock
Late Antique/Early Christian, 432
Rome, Church of Sainta Sabina

Miracles of Jesus:  Curing the Blind Man,
Multiplying the Loaves & Fishes,
Changing Water to Wine at Cana
Late Antique/Early Christian, 432
Rome, Church of Santa Sabina

This proves the point that even as early as 432 this was a firm belief of the church, that the Eucharist/Body of Christ is foretold not only by the actions of important figures in the Old Testament, but also by the actions of Jesus himself in the New.  Consequently, many images of the fall and gathering of the manna in the wilderness are paired with other events, taken from both the Old and New Testaments.

 

The Miracle of the Manna Paired with other Old Testament Scenes

When paired with other Old Testament images of actions or events they are understood to forecast actions or events from the life of Jesus, especially events that foretell his sufferings in the Passion and his establishment of the Eucharist.  

Moses Summons Water from the Rock and The Miracle of the Manna
From Old Testament Miniatures
French (Paris), 1244-1255
New York, Pierpont Morgan Library
MS M638, fol. 9va

Lest the viewer forget who is the real source of these miracles, a small figure of God looks down from heaven in each. The miracle of water from the rock was seen as a forecast of Baptism.

Master of James IV of Scotland, Israelites Gathering Manna
From the Spinola Hours
Flemish (Ghent), c. 1510-1520
Los Angeles, J. Paul Getty Museum
MS Ludwig IX 8, fol. 49

Here the scene of gathering manna is paired with the meeting between Abraham and the priest-king of Salem, Melchisedek, himself seen as a foreshadowing of Jesus, as his sacrifice of bread and wine foreshadow the Eucharist too.

The Sacrifice of Isaac and the Isrealites Gathering Manna
From a Missal
German (Maria Laach), 1558
London, British Library
MS Harley 2835, fol. 145

The Sacrifice of Isaac by Abraham, averted by divine intervention at the last moment, alludes to the ultimate sacrifice of Jesus in obedience to his Father's will, while the fall of manna is a foretaste of the Eucharist, the True Bread from heaven.

This study continues in two more articles, with the images combining the Miracle of the Manna with the events of the life of Jesus from the New Testament and with more interesting images.

• Prefiguring Salvation -- Manna in the Desert and the Bread from Heaven, Part II
• Prefiguring Salvation -- Manna in the Desert and the Bread from Heaven, Part III

______________________________________________________________________
1,  These readings are: 

• Nineteenth Sunday in Ordinary Time – John 6:41-51   
• Twentieth Sunday in Ordinary Time – John 6:51-58                                                                  
• Twenty-first Sunday in Ordinary Time – John 6: 60-69

© M. Duffy, 2018

Excerpts from the Lectionary for Mass for Use in the Dioceses of the United States of America, second typical edition © 2001, 1998, 1997, 1986, 1970 Confraternity of Christian Doctrine, Inc., Washington, DC. Used with permission. All rights reserved. No portion of this text may be reproduced by any means without permission in writing from the copyright owner.

Scripture texts in this work are taken from the New American Bible, revised edition © 2010, 1991, 1986, 1970 Confraternity of Christian Doctrine, Washington, D.C. and are used by permission of the copyright owner. All Rights Reserved. No part of the New American Bible may be reproduced in any form without permission in writing from the copyright owner.

The Brazen Serpent

Miniature Altarpiece with the Sacrifice of Isaac, the Crucifixion and Moses with the Brazen Serpent

Dutch, Early 16th Century

New  York, Metropolitan Museum of Art

“Jesus said to Nicodemus:

“Just as Moses lifted up the serpent in the desert,
so must the Son of Man be lifted up,
so that everyone who believes in him may have eternal life.”
For God so loved the world that he gave his only Son,
so that everyone who believes in him might not perish
but might have eternal life.
For God did not send his Son into the world to condemn the world,
but that the world might be saved through him.
Whoever believes in him will not be condemned,
but whoever does not believe has already been condemned,
because he has not believed in the name of the only Son of God.
And this is the verdict,
that the light came into the world,
but people preferred darkness to light,
because their works were evil.
For everyone who does wicked things hates the light
and does not come toward the light,
so that his works might not be exposed.
But whoever lives the truth comes to the light,
so that his works may be clearly seen as done in God.”

John 3:14-21  Gospel for the Fourth Sunday of Lent, Year B

What is this serpent lifted up by Moses in the desert that Jesus refers to when speaking to Nicodemus?  Well, since the earliest years Christians have seen this incident, described in the Book of Numbers, as a metaphor or sign of the Crucifixion of Jesus.  As described in the Book of Numbers:

“From Mount Hor the children of Israel set out on the Red Sea road,

to bypass the land of Edom.

But with their patience worn out by the journey,

the people complained against God and Moses,

"Why have you brought us up from Egypt to die in this desert,

where there is no food or water?

We are disgusted with this wretched food!"

In punishment the LORD sent among the people saraph serpents,

which bit the people so that many of them died.

Then the people came to Moses and said,

"We have sinned in complaining against the LORD and you.

Pray the LORD to take the serpents away from us."

So Moses prayed for the people, and the LORD said to Moses,

"Make a saraph and mount it on a pole,

and whoever looks at it after being bitten will live."

Moses accordingly made a bronze serpent and mounted it on a pole,

and whenever anyone who had been bitten by a serpent

looked at the bronze serpent, he lived.”

Numbers 21:4-9  Reading I from the Feast of the Exaltation of the Holy Cross, September 14

This bronze serpent, often called the brazen serpent, set on a pole by Moses and lifted up so that that those who had been bitten could view it, has been interpreted as a prefiguration of the body of Jesus, lifted up on the Cross.  Where the bronze serpent cured those who looked at it of the effects of deadly snakebite, the body of Jesus (the Son of Man) on the Cross will cure those who look at it and believe in Him of the greatest death, the permanent death of the soul.  Belief in the One lifted up will lead to Eternal Life for those who look and believe. 

Moses and the Brazen Serpent
From the Orations by Gregory Nazianzenus
Byzantine (Constantinople), 11th-12th Centuries
Paris, Bibliotheque nationale de France
MS Coislin 239, fol. 18r

Christian artists embraced the significance of this image from Saint John’s Gospel and produced many visual works that reminded viewers of the significance of this idea.  I think that it is fair to say that behind each image of the brazen serpent, lies the text of this Sunday’s Gospel. 

The Straightforward Image

Most images present the Old Testament text from Numbers without much adornment and without needing to hammer home the analogy to the Crucifix.  In fact, they set the serpent, often conceived of as dragon-headed, with ears and sometimes wings, on top of a column or pedestal, instead of hung on a pole.  

Enameled Plaque of Moses and the Brazen Serpent
Mosan, c. 1160
London, Victoria and Albert Museum

Moses and the Brazen Serpent
From a Picture Bible
French (Saint-Omer), c. 1190-1200
The Hague, Koninklijk Bibliotheek
MS KB 76 F 5, fol.  6v

Enameled Plaque of Moses and the Brazen Serpent
German, c. 1200
New York, Metropolitan Museum of Art

Frequently, additional figures beside Moses and his brother Aaron are shown.  These figures often are entangled with the biting serpents, or hold out parts of their bodies that have been bitten, asking for healing.

Moses and the Brazen Serpent
From the Golden Munich Psalter
English (Oxford), c. 1200-1225
Munich, Bayerisches Staatsbibliothek
MS Clm 835, fol. 20r

(A word about the depiction of Moses.  He is frequently shown with what look like horns coming from his head.  This motif, which seems very strange to our eyes, is common from the middle ages through the Renaissance.  (See, for instance, the great statue of Moses by Michelangelo now in the church of San Pietro in Vincoli in Rome.)  It is due to the fact that when Saint Jerome was preparing the Latin translation of the Hebrew Old Testament he used the word “cornuta” or “horned” to translate the reference in Exodus 34:29 to the radiance which shone from Moses face after he had been on Mount Sinai with God for the second time to receive the second set of the tablets of the Law.  In short, they represent not horns, but rays of light.) 1 

Moses and the Brazen Serpent
From a Book of Hours
German (Bamberg), c. 1204-1219
New York, Pierpont Morgan Library
MS M 739. fol. 16v

Here, as in the image above, the figures wear the traditional pointed hats that indicate Jewish identity in medieval Europe.  In this image, which is nightmarishly terrifying, some of the sufferers are actively being bitten by snakes, which are wrapping themselves around them and biting at mouths, eyes, nose and throat. 

Moses and the Brazen Serpent
German, c. 1240
Soest, Evangelical Church of Saint Mary

Moses and the Brazen Serpent (right)
From the Psalter of Saint Louis
French (Paris), c. 1270
Paris, Bibliotheque nationale de France
MS Latin 10525, fol. 37v

Moses and the Brazen Serpent
From Bible historiale by Guiard des Moulins
French (Paris), 14th-15th Centuries
Paris, Bibliotheque nationale de France
MS Francais 159, fol. 70r

Michiel van der Borch, Moses and the Brazen Serpent
From Rhimebible by Jacob van Maerlant
Dutch (Utrectht), 1332
The Hague, Meermano Museum
MS MMW 10 B 21, fol. 35r

Moses and the Brazen Serpent
From an Histoires bibliques
French (Saint-Quentin), 1350
Paris, Bibliothequ nationale de France
MS Francais 1753, fol. 48v

Jean Bandol and Others, Moses and the Brazen Serpent
From Grande Bible Historiale Completee
French (Paris), c. 1371-1372
The Hague, Meermano Museum,
MS MMW 10 B 23, fol.90r

Moses and the Brazen Serpent
From a Bible historiale by Guiard des Moulins
French (Paris), c. 1400
Paris, Bibliotheque nationale de France
MS Francais 9, fol. 179v

Moses and the Brazen Serpent
From a History Bible by Ulrich Schriber
German (Strassburg), 1422
Munich, Bayerische Staatsbibliothek
MS SuStB Augsburg 2 Cod 50, fol. 113r

Bible Masters of the First Generation, Moses and the Brazen Serpent
Dutch (Utrecht), c. 1430
The Hague, Koninklijk Bibliotheek
MS KB 78 D 38, dl1, fol.  103v

Jan Joest von Kalkar, Moses and the Brazen Serpent
From the Passion Altarpiece
Dutch, 1508
Kalkar, Catholic Paris Church of Saint Nicholas

Michelangelo Buonarroti, The Brazen Serpent
Italian, 1511
Vatican City, Apostolic Palace, Sistine Chapel

Pierre Reymond, Bowl of an Enameled Tazza, Moses and the Brazen Serpent
French, 1556
Paris, Musee du Louvre, Département des Objets d'art du Moyen Age, de la Renaissance et des temps modernes

Anthony van Dyck, The Brazen Serpent
Flemish, c. 1618-1620
Madrid, Museo Nacional del Prado

Peter Paul Rubens, Moses and the Brazen Serpent
Flemish, c. 1635-1640
London, National Gallery

Tapestry After Charles Le Brun, Moses and the Brazen Serpent
French, c. 1686
Paris, Musée du Louvre

Brass Tobacco Box with Moses and the Brazen Serpent
Dutch, 18th Century
New York, Metropolitan Museum of Art

Toward the middle of the eighteenth century Corrado Giaquinto used the same basic composition in two paintings, with different color effects, apparently to work out the details of the final fresco painting in Rome's church of Santa Croce in Gerusalemme.  He managed to produce three similar paintings with three very distinct moods.

Corrado Giaquinto, the Brazen Serpent
Italian, c. 1743-1744
Madrid, Museo Nacional del Prado

Corrado Giaquinto, the Brazen Serpent
Italian, c. 1743-1744
London, National Gallery

Corrado Giaquinto, The Brazen Serpent
Italian, c. 1749-1751
Rome, Church of Santa Croce in Gerusalemme

The Brazen Serpent as an Allusion to the Crucifixion

Some images include a reference to the foreshadowing of the Crucifixion, either by direct juxtaposition, or by some sort of allusion.  

One of the primary, as one of the earliest, is in making the "pole" on which the serpent is displayed, into a cruciform shape, with a crossbar, instead of the simple pole referred to in the biblical text.  

Allegory of Salvation
From Bestiaire divin by Guillaume Le Clerc
English, c. 1350-1375
Paris, Bibliotheque nationale de France
MS Francais 14969, fol. 9

Agnolo Bronzino, The Brazen Serpent
Italian, c. 1542
Florence, Palazzo Vecchio, Cappella di Eleonora

Johann Brabender, The Brazen Serpent
German, 1546
Hildesheim, Catholic Church of Saint Anthony

Moses and the Brazen Serpent
From a Book of Hours
French (Paris), c. 1547-155
Paris, Bibliotheque nationale de France
MS Latin 1429, fol. 37r

Maarten van Heemskerck, The Brazen Serpent
Flemish, 1549
Princeton (NJ), Princeton University Art Museum

The miniature from the Book of Hours and the drawing by Heemskerck above both illustrate the impact that the discovery of the already famous statue of Laocöon and His Sons had on artists.2  

Athanodorus, Agesandrus and Polidorus of Rhodes, Laocöon and His Sons
Roman, 40-20 BC
Vatican City, Museo Pio Clementino, Cortile del Belvedere

The statue was known from preserved ancient texts before it was found in the ruins of the Baths of Trajan on January 10, 1506.  Its horrifying image, taken from the history of the Trojan War, of struggling human figures in the coils of a strong sea serpent had an enormous impact on artists from the date of its discovery.

Vincenzo Danti, Moses and the Brazen Serpent

Italian, 1559

Florence, Museo Nazionale del Bargello

Tintoretto, The Brazen Serpent
Italian, c. 1575-1576
Venice, Scuola Grande di San Rocco

Moses and the Brazen Serpent
German, 1597
Augsburg, Cathedral, Chapel of Saint Luke

Peter Paul Rubens, Moses and the Brazen Serpent
Flemish, c. 1609-1610
London, Courtauld Institute of Art Gallery

Fireback with Moses and the Brazen Serpent
German, c. 1650-1700
London, Victoria and Albert Museum

Sebastien Bourdon, Moses and the Brazen Serpent
French, c. 1653-1654
Madrid, Museo Nacional del Prado

Luca Giordano, Erection of the Brazen Serpent
Italian, c. 1703-1704
Naples, Certosa di San Martino

Giovanni Antonio Pellegrini, Moses and the Brazen Serpent
Italian, 1707
Venice, San Moise

Johann Jacob Stevens, The Brazen Serpent
Czech, c. 1718-1725
Ossegg, Convent Chapel of the Assumption

Franz Georg Hermann the Younger, Moses and the Brazen Serpent
German, 1733
Markoberdorf, Church of Saint Martin

Jean Charles Frontier, Moses and the Brazen Serpent
French, c. 1750
Gray, Musée  Baron Martin

Charles Francois-Hutin, The Brazen Serpent
French, 1753
Dresden, Holy Trinity Catholic Church

William Blake, Moses Erecting the Brazen Serpent
English, c. 1800-1803
Boston, Museum of Fine Arts

James Tissot, Moses and the Brazen Serpent
French, c.1896-1902
New York, Jewish Museum

The Brazen Serpent and the Cross

Some images went further.  They made a direct juxtaposition of the brazen serpent and Christ upon the Cross.

This appears to be seen first in devotional objects of metal, made during the twelfth and thirteenth centuries in the area around the river Meuse (or Maas), which runs through the region now divided into the countries of France, Luxembourg, Germany, the Netherlands and Belgium.  However, during the middle ages this region was distinct, politically united and independent.*  From the division of the Carolingian Empire following the death of Charlemagne and his son this area was known as Lotharingia, then later it formed part of the greater duchy of Burgundy and was, to all intents and purposes, a separate country, caught between France and the Holy Roman Empire.  In the eleventh and twelfth centuries it was noted for the quality and innovation of its metalworkers.  Many famous works in metal were produced by the craftsmen living along its banks and in the surrounding areas, such as Cologne.

The Alton Towers Triptych
Mosan (Cologne), c. 1150
London, Victoria and Albert Museum

The story of salvation is displayed in this triptych, which was probably intended as a portable altarpiece.  The central panel contains scenes from the life of Christ, while the two side panels contain scenes from the Old Testament that were seen as "types" for the Christian events.  See the relevant pictures in the image below.

The Alton Towers Triptych, central scenes
Mosan (Cologne), c. 1150
London, Victoria and Albert Museum

Here we can get a better idea of how the composition works.  In the central panel is a depiction of the Crucifixion with Christ on the cross between the Virgin Mary and Saint John the Evangelist.  On the left panel is the scene of the Sacrifice of Isaac with the angel stopping Abraham's knife at the last moment.  On the right panel is the scene of Moses and Aaron with the brazen serpent on a pole.  Both Old Testament scenes refer to the self-sacrifice of Jesus on the cross and its wider significance.

Altar Cross with Enamel Plaques
Mosan (Hildesheim), c. 1160-1200
London, Victoria and Albert Museum

This cross combines the image of the crucified Christ with individual enamel plaques of scenes from the Old Testament that were considered "types" of the Passion and Resurrection, from the left arm clockwise: Aaron marking a house with the blood of a lamb; Jacob blessing the sons of Joseph, Manasses and Ephraim; Elijah with the widow of Sarepta; and Moses and the brazen serpent.

 

Moses and the Brazen Serpent
From an Altar Cross with Enamel Plaques
Mosan (Hildesheim), c. 1160-1200
London, Victoria and Albert Museum

There is also the chalice, known as the Bernward Chalice, after the bishop of Hildesheim who famously commissioned the first full scale pieces of architectural bronzework since the fall of the Roman Empire.  In reality, the chalice (and its accompanying paten) were commissioned several decades after Bernward's death by one of his successors, Gerhard vom Berge.  The body of the chalice features four scenes from the life of Christ, while the foot of the chalice features four related Old Testament "types" for the same events.  The "type" which appears on the foot directly below the scene of the Crucifixion is that of the Brazen Serpent.3

The Bernward Chalice showing the Crucifixion
German (Hildesheim), First Third of the Thirteenth Century
Hildesheim, Papal Basilica of Saint Godehard

The Crucifixion
Detail from the Berward Chalice
German (Hildesheim), First Third of the Thirteenth Century
Hildesheim, Papal Basilica of Saint Godehard

The Crucifixion
Detail from the Berward Chalice
German (Hildesheim), First Third of the Thirteenth Century
Hildesheim, Papal Basilica of Saint Godehard

However, the Bernward Chalice is not the only one to make this connection.

Chalice with Crucifixion on the Knob and Moses and the Brazen Serpent on the Foot
German, c. 1230-1250
New York, Metropolitan Museum of Art. Cloisters Collection

However, in this case, the bowl of the chalice features engraved images of the apostles.  It is on the knob that the Crucifixion scene appears.  And, once again, the Old Testament scenes appear on the fool

Detail of the Knob of the Chalice
German, c. 1230-1250
New York, Metropolitan Museum of Art. Cloisters Collection

Detail of the Foot of the Chalice Showing Moses and the Brazen Serpent
German, c. 1230-1250
New York, Metropolitan Museum of Art. Cloisters Collection

Illuminators and painters also used the same arrangement in telling the story of salvation by Christ, including the Brazen Serpent among the significant Old Testament events that prefigured events in the life of Jesus Christ.

As, for instance, in this beautiful page from a Bible from Salzburg, which uses the motif of the tree of Jesse as a framework for presenting the three fold comparison of the Old and New Testaments.  

Jesse Tree of "Types"
From Biblia veteris et novi testamenti, the Grillinger Bible
Austrian (Salzburg), c. 1428-1430
Munich, Bayerische Staatsbibliothek
MS Clm 15701, fol. 9v

Detail of the Jesse Tree of "Types" featuring the Sacrifice of Abraham and the Brazen Serpent with the Crucifixion
From Biblia veteris et novi testamenti, the Grillinger Bible
Austrian (Salzburg), c. 1428-1430
Munich, Bayerische Staatsbibliothek
MS Clm 15701, fol. 9v

Bedford Master and Workshop, Crucifixion
From a Book of Hours
French (Paris), c. 1430-1435
New York, Pierpont Morgan Library
MS M 359, fol. 111v

Here the image of Moses and the Brazen Serpent is found in the lower left corner.  

Hugo van der Goes, Calvary Triptych
Flemish, c. 1465-1468
Ghent, Cathedral of Saint Bavo

Here the Brazen Serpent story if found in the right hand panel.

One of the most common ways in which this direct juxtaposition was transmitted was through works such as the Biblia pauperum, which divided the history of salvation into three eras:  Before the Law, that is stories from the Books of Genesis and Exodus; Under the Law, that is the remainder of the books of the Old Testament; and Under Grace, that is the books of the New Testament.   The sample shown here compares the Crucifixion with the Sacrifice of Isaac, in which before the Law Abraham is willing to sacrifice his son, Isaac, at God’s command and is stopped at the last minute by an angel, and the setting up of the brazen serpent by Moses, under the Law.  The Crucifixion is under Grace and is the lifting up of God’s son as He willingly accepts a sacrificial death to save mankind.

Rambures Master, Sacrifice of Isaac, Crucifixion of Jesus, Moses and the Brazen Serpent
From a Biblia pauperum
French (Amiens), c. 1470
The Hague, Meermano Museum
MS MMW 10 A 15, fol. 32r

Beyond the Medieval World

This method of presenting the parallels between the Old and New Testaments continued into the Renaissance/Reformation period and beyond.

In this enameled pyx (a sacred vessel for storing the consecrated hosts after Mass), one side depicts Moses and the Brazen Serpent, while the other side depicts the episode of “Doubting Thomas” when the resurrected Jesus encourages the doubting disciple, Thomas, to probe His wounds to prove that He is alive and no ghost.

Enamel Pyx with Moses and the Brazen Serpent
French, c. 1501
Ratingen, Private Collection

Enamel Pyx with The Risen Christ Displaying His Wounds
to Doubting Thomas
French, c. 1501
Ratingen, Private Collection

The early Protestant reformers adopted the image of the Brazen Serpent to emphasize their belief that one is saved solely through grace and belief, without necessarily engaging in good works.  Lucas Cranach the Younger produced what might be considered a painted manifesto of this idea in his rather odd painting known as the Weimar Altarpiece.  

Lucas Cranach the Younger, The Weimar Altarpiece, Center
German, 1555
Weimar, Stadtkirch Sankt Peter und Paul

In the famous Weimar Altarpiece by Lucas Cranach the Younger, we see Jesus in the foreground twice.  He is shown as the Crucified, lifted on the cross.  Blood pours from His wounds as in a standard Catholic Crucifixion scene.  However, one stream from His side projects out and curves so as to hint that it will hit Martin Luther squarely in the face, a possible sign of divine approbation.  Luther stands to the right of the picture, his finger pointing to a passage in an open book, presumably his translation of the Bible.  Behind him stands Lucas Cranach the Elder, the painter’s father, who may have been an early convert to Luther’s point of view (there is some uncertainty about this because, while producing work for Luther, he also continued to produce works of art with a Catholic viewpoint).  Behind Cranach is a figure that is usually interpreted as John the Baptist, wearing a red cloak, the symbol of martyrdom, over his goatskin clothing.  He points up at the Crucified Christ and down at the Paschal Lamb.  At the left of the painting we see Jesus again, as the Risen Savior, triumphing over Death and a monstrous devil.  In the central background we see Moses delivering the tablets of the Law to the people, while a skeletal figure chases a near naked man away from the group.  Above the heads of Luther, Cranach and John the Baptist we see the episode of Moses setting up the Brazen Serpent.  Nothing in the painting, however, is actually at odds with Catholic beliefs, apart from the inclusion of Cranach and Luther.  Cranach, however, through his prayerful gesture hints at the common Catholic practice of including living donors in prayer before sacred figures.  Again, we are left in doubt about Cranach’s real intentions

In Cristobal de Villalpando’s immense altarpiece for the Catholic Cathedral of the Immaculate Conception in Puebla, Mexico, there is little ambiguity, but there is a surprise.  Villalpando chooses to compare the episode of the lifting up of the Brazen Serpent, not to the usual Crucifixion scene, but to the lifting up of Jesus during the Transfiguration.  The theme is reinforced by the fact that his figure of Moses in the Transfiguration scene, is holding a staff with a winged snake, just like the one in the scene below.  

Even the largest ceiling fresco ever created, the incredible ceiling for the staircase hall of the residence of the Prince-Bishops of Würzburg, makes the connection between the Crucifixion and the Brazen Serpent.  The work of Giovanni Battista Tiepolo, the design program of the fresco is that of the sun, personified as Apollo at the apex of the ceiling, illuminating the world, with the personified continents arranged at the sides.  In part of the painting representing the continent of Asia we can see both the Brazen Serpent on a pole and the hill of Calvary with two standing crosses.  

Giovanni Battista Tiepolo, Continental Asia from Allegory of Heaven and Earth
Italian, 1753
Würzburg, Staircase of the Residence of the Prince Bishops

Franz Georg Hermann, The Glorification of Divine Wisdom
German, c. 1755-1757
Bad Schussenried, New Convent Library

In the painting above, made for a Catholic convent, Moses and the Brazen Serpent is seen just to the right of the Crucified Jesus, while in the painting below, made for a Protestant church, the two are presented directly opposite each other at the narrow ends of the ceiling.  By the eighteenth century there was no difference in the iconography, just as before the Reformation.

Johann Nepomuk Nieberlein, Ceiling
German, 1774
Dinkelsbuehl, Evangelical Hospital Church

An unusual instance of the juxtaposition of the Brazen Serpent with the Crucifixion was made in 1759 by Johann Woflgang Baumgartner for the Church of the Holy Cross in Bergen-bei-Neuberg.  It is particularly unusual in that the image of Christ is not of the man on the cross, but of the child Jesus in Saint Joseph's workshop.  While angels hover above and present the open Scriptures, a vision of Moses with the Brazen Serpent appears over Jesus' right shoulder.  It is a reminder of what is to come rather than a memory of what is past.

Johann Wolfgang Baumgartner, Saint Joseph with the Christ Child
German, 1759
Bergen-bei-Neuberg, Church of the Holy Cross

The Biblical Aftermath

While the story of the setting up of the Brazen Serpent and its connection to the Crucifixion are fairly common in the history of art, there is a small body of works that record the after effects.  All of them date to the fourteenth century. 

Hezekiah Destroys the Brazen Serpent
From Histoires bibliques
French (Saint-Quentin), 1350
Paris, Bibliotheque natinale de France
MS Francais 1753, fol. 107v

Apparently, the bronze serpent on a pole, set up by Moses, was preserved after the Israelites settled down and, over time, became an object of cult worship.  However, the pious king of Judah, Hezekiah, who ruled during a period in which Jerusalem was besieged by the Assyrian king Sennacherib in the eighth century BC, destroyed such cult objects.  As Second Book of Kings tells the story:

“In the third year of Hoshea, son of Elah, king of Israel, Hezekiah, son of Ahaz, king of Judah, became king.

He was twenty-five years old when he became king, and he reigned twenty-nine years in Jerusalem. His mother’s name was Abi, daughter of Zechariah.

He did what was right in the LORD’s sight, just as David his father had done.

Hezekiah Destroys the Brazen Serpent
From a Bible historiale by Guiard des Moulins
French (Paris), 14th-15th Century
Paris, Bibliotheque nationale de France
MS Francais 159, fol. 166r

It was he who removed the high places, shattered the pillars, cut down the asherah, and smashed the bronze serpent Moses had made, because up to that time the Israelites were burning incense to it. (It was called Nehushtan.)

Jean Bandol and Others, Hezekiah Ordering the Smashing of the
Brazen Serpent
French (Paris), c. 1371-1372)
The Hague, Meermano Museum
MS MMW 10 B 23, fol. 184r

He put his trust in the LORD, the God of Israel; and neither before nor after him was there anyone like him among all the kings of Judah.

Hezekiah held fast to the LORD and never turned away from following him, but observed the commandments the LORD had given Moses.”

2 Kings 18:1-6

Presumably, the people had lost track of the real meaning of the Brazen Serpent and were worshiping it as an idol in its own right and not as a helpful sign of God's love and protection.

© M. Duffy, 2018, images updated and new material added 2024

1. Mellinkoff, Ruth.  The Horned Moses in Medieval Art and Thought, Berkeley and Los Angeles, University of California Press, 1970.
2. Harrison, Jefferson C.  “The Brazen Serpent” by Maarten van Heemskerck:  Aspects of Its Style and Meaning, Record of the Art Museum, Princeton University, Volume 49, 1990, pp. 16-29.
3. Medieval Treasures from Hildesheim. Edited by Peter Barnet, Michael Brandt and Gerhard Lutz, New York, The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2013, pp. 18-19, 115.

* In 1978 some of this old unity was restored when the European Union created the Meuse-Rhine Euroregion on some of the same old ground.  It incorporates portions of Germany, the Netherlands and Belgium to work on cross-border projects that concern the entire region.

Scripture texts in this work are taken from the New American Bible, revised edition © 2010, 1991, 1986, 1970 Confraternity of Christian Doctrine, Washington, D.C. and are used by permission of the copyright owner. All Rights Reserved. No part of the New American Bible may be reproduced in any form without permission in writing from the copyright owner.