Iconography of the Flight into Egypt

Luc-Olivier Merson, Rest on the Flight into Egypt
French, 1879
Boston, Museum of Fine Arts

Our cultural celebration of the Christmas season has become very truncated in recent decades.  Currently, the popular perception of the Nativity stops at the manger scene, with both the shepherds and the Magi in attendance, even though they arrived at different times and probably to different places.  This truncation seems to me to have begun in the mid- to late-1980s. Even the liturgy of the Catholic church reflects this.  For 2025, for instance, the celebration of the Epiphany (the visit of the Magi to the infant Jesus) on Sunday, January 5, will be followed, on January 12, with the commemoration of the Baptism of the Lord, something which happened to the adult Jesus.  And that ends the liturgical Christmas season, which once upon a time stretched to February 2nd, the feast of the Presentation of Jesus in the Temple.

When I was younger there was a more general knowledge of the entirety of the story that is found in the Gospels, not to mention in pious traditions.  However, over the more recent decades we have cut off such important elements as the massacre of the Holy Innocents by Herod and the entire Flight into Egypt and residency there, which once formed such a major portion of the iconography associated with the Nativity of Jesus.  

Indeed I have personally overheard puzzled museum goers try to identify what was happening in a painting that was obviously a Massacre of the Holy Innocents (and clearly labeled as such on the wall card next to the painting).  The three ladies finally decided that the subject must be a massacre of children in Jerusalem by Crusaders during the Middle Ages!  I respectfully intervened to tell them of their mistake and was met by puzzled looks and the objection "Where is that in the Bible?"  It's Matthew 2:16-18.

Massacre of the Innocents

The Magi, who after arriving in Jerusalem were invited by Herod to share with him the timing of the appearance of the star that had sent them on their quest, were warned in a dream not to return to Jerusalem but "departed for their country by another way".  (Matthew 2:12)  For the Magi click here.

"When Herod realized that he had been deceived by the magi, he became furious. He ordered the massacre of all the boys in Bethlehem and its vicinity two years old and under, in accordance with the time he had ascertained from the magi." (Matthew 2:16)  This event is known as the Massacre of the Innocents (click here).

The Flight into Egypt

But the slaughter failed completely in its objective because God had other plans.  An angel warned Joseph about Herod's plans and ordered him to take the child and his mother to Egypt to wait for Herod's death. (Matthew 2:13-15)  Following the angelic warning the Holy Family fled, escaping in time to avoid the massacre.

Their flight has been the subject of innumerable paintings, sculptures and decorative works over the centuries.  Indeed, as a subject, it is as important as the Nativity itself, or the Crucifixion and Resurrection.

• The Flight into Egypt -- The Holy Refugees, The "Simple" Images (Part I of a Series)  click here
• The Flight Into Egypt -- The Variations (Part 2 of a Series)  click here
• The Rest on the Flight into Egypt, Part I of 3  click here  
• The Rest on the Flight into Egypt, Part II of 3  click here  
• The Rest on the Flight into Egypt, Part III of 3  click here

So, come and join those who, over many centuries, have contemplated the effects of Herod's horrible attack on the children of Bethlehem and the means by which his intended target was saved to live for the purpose for which he was sent.

© M. Duffy, 2024, updated 2025.

Feasts and Remembrances in the Octave of Christmas

Follower of Simon Bening, The Angels Announce
the Birth of Jesus to the Shepherds
From a Book of Hours
Flemish,  c. 1500-1525
The Hague, Meermano Museum
MS RMMW 10 E 3, fol. 85v

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Some of the major Church feasts bring with them a week of other celebrations.  This is known as an octave, from the Latin word for the number eight.  In times past many more feasts had octaves attached to them.  Most no longer do, while for most that remain the days of the octave are simply labeled "x day in the Octave of y" (for example, third day in the Octave of Easter).  

Christmas is, however, different.  It retains a daily differentiation for its octave, with each day of the octave having its own, very distinctive character.  

 

 

 

 

Thus, we see:

December 26 - Feast of Saint Stephen, the first martyr.

December 27 - Feast of Saint John the Evangelist.  For detailed information on the iconography of Saint John the Evangelist see:

      - When Knowledge of Iconography Is Lost (click here)
      - Images of John as Evangelist (click here)
      - The Figure With The Chalice (click here)
      - Martyrdom, Miracles and Death of John the Evangelist (click here)
      - Witnesses to the Crucifixion (click here)
      - The Last Supper (click here)

December 28 - Feast of the Holy Innocents (click here)

December 29 - Feast of Saint Thomas Becket (Currently an optional memorial) (click here)  In 2024 this feast is not celebrated because it falls on a Sunday and, therefore, is superseded by the Sunday, which this year is the feast of the Holy Family.

December 29 - Feast of the Holy Family, celebrated on the Sunday between Christmas and the Feast of Mary, Mother of God. (click here)

December 31 - Feast of Saint Sylvester, Pope (Currently an optional memorial)

January 1 -- Feast of Mary, Mother of God (click here)

While I have not yet produced an essay on the iconography of Saints Stephen or Sylvester, I have produced essays on the other days.  You can access these essays by clicking the links above as indicated.

Have a Merry and Blessed Christmas Octave!

© M. Duffy, 2024

On the Iconography of Christmas

 

Luisa Roldan (called La Roldana), Rest on the Flight into Egypt
Spanish, c. 1690
New York, Metropolitan Museum of Art

 

 

The Advent/Christmas Season has figured heavily in the history of Western Christian art from the early fourth century onward.  There is a tremendous amount of material available and over the years of this blog I have written a great deal about the iconography attached to the various days and weeks.  To make the material more accessible to readers I have gathered below most of these essays into a series of useful links for connecting to what I have already written on the various subjects (much as I have done for Holy Week and the Easter season).  

Although the specific readings these images reflect do not form part of the liturgy in every year, each year does touch on most of them.  

Please note that occasionally one or more of the essays mentioned may be unavailable at times.  This is because I am attempting to keep the essays updated with new images or images that have become available in more detailed versions, thanks to improving technology and expanded access to images.

So, here goes...

Last Week of Advent/Preparation for Christmas

The O Antiphons.  These are a series of antiphons (short verses that precede and follow the prayer of the Magnificat at Evening Prayer (Vespers) during the last week of Advent.  They offer meditations on the significance of the Child born on Christmas Day.

The O Antiphons (introduction)  click here

• O Wisdom, O Holy Word of God!  click here
• O Flower of Jesse's Stem!  click here 
• O Key of David! Come, break down the walls of death!  click here   
• O Radiant Dawn! O Sun of Justice!  click here  
• O King of All the Nations!  click here  
• O Emmanuel! Savior of all people, come and set us free! click here

Nativity (central group of figures) from the Metropolitan Museum Christmas Tree
Italian (Naples), Late 18th Century
New York, Metropolitan Museum of Art

The Annunciation

The apparition of the Archangel Gabriel to the young woman of Nazareth named Mary is the event that begins the events of the life of Jesus Christ.  Therefore, the Gospel readings for Mass on the last Sunday and last week of Advent, focus on it.  It has also been a principal topic for artists for many centuries, and is quite frequent on Christmas cards as well.  I have written extensively on the iconography of the Annunciation and my work can easily be accessed through the guide that I put together last year.

• Links to the Iconography of the Annunciation  click here

The Consolation of Saint Joseph 

An angel reveals to Joseph that Mary's pregnancy comes from God, not from a man.  Joseph acts on his dream and marries Mary, becoming the guardian of the Son of God.

• Joseph, Do Not Be Afraid!  click here  

Circle of Antoine Le Moiturier, Nativity
French, c. 1450
New York, Metropolitan Museum of Art

The Birth of Jesus

The Nativity

Mary and Joseph are unable to find lodging in a crowded Bethlehem and find shelter in a stable (or cave) where Mary gives birth and places her child in the manger where the animals usually feed.  Angels announce the good news of his birth to the shepherds in the fields, who come and adore him. 

• Love's Pure Light -- Light From Darkness click here  
• The Animals at the Manger  click here

The Holy Family

Images of the three members of the Holy Family. 

• Jesus, Mary and Joseph! – The Holy Family  click here  

Altarpiece with Scenes of the Infancy of Christ
Northern French, Late 15th Century
New York, Metropolitan Museum of Art

The Aftermath

The Visit of the Wise Men

Wise men, led by a star, come from the East to visit the newborn child and offer him rich gifts.

• How the Image of the Wise Men Was Formed  click here

The Holy Innocents

King Herod the Great knows about the prophecy of a new king in Israel.  After hearing the story of the wise men he decides to ensure his throne by eliminating this new born king.  So, he orders the massacre of all infant boys under 2 years old.  

• The Holy Innocents – Nearly Forgotten Baby Martyrs  click here

The Flight into Egypt  

An angel warns Joseph about Herod's plans and orders him to take the child and his mother to Egypt to wait for Herod's death.  The Holy Family flees.

• The Flight into Egypt -- The Holy Refugees, The "Simple" Images (Part I of a Series)  click here
• The Flight Into Egypt -- The Variations (Part 2 of a Series)  click here
• The Rest on the Flight into Egypt, Part I of 3  click here  
• The Rest on the Flight into Egypt, Part II of 3  click here  
• The Rest on the Flight into Egypt, Part III of 3  click here

Related Feasts  

The beginning of the new year brings with it two feasts that are reflections on the Christmas story rather than narrative depictions of the Gospels.  These are the Solemnity of Mary, Mother of God, on January 1 and the feast of the Holy Name of Jesus on January 3.

• Mary, Mother of God  click here
• The Holy Name of Jesus  click here

I wish you all a Blessed Christmas and a Healthy New Year!

Christmas Tree with 18th Century Presepio
Italian, 18th Century (tree modern)
New York, Metropolitan Museum of Art

For those of you who live in the New York area or who may be visiting, the glorious Christmas Tree with its 18th Century Italian Presepio figures (sometimes known as the Angel Tree) is again on view.  This year it can be visited until January 6, 2025.  As always, it is well worth the visit.  And this year you can combine a visit to it with the ongoing special exhibition of early Siennese painting Siena: The Rise of Painting, 1300–1350, which will be on view until January 26, 2025.

© M. Duffy, 2021, 2022 2023, 2024.

The O Antiphons

+Follower of the Coetivy Master, Initial O
From a Book of Hours
French (Loire Region), c. 1470-1480
New York, Pierpont Morgan Library
MS G1.II, fol. 232v

For the convenience of readers I am reposting this listing of the O Antiphons. 

In the week before Christmas, the Liturgy of the Hours (the official daily prayer of the Church) includes a series of special antiphons that precede the recitation of the Magnificat (Luke 1: 46-55) during Evening Prayer that are collectively called the O Antiphons.  In the English-speaking world most Christians are familiar with them as they are paraphrased in the verses of the well-known Advent hymn "O Come, O Come Emmanuel", which is a free translation of the medieval Latin text.

The O Antiphons refer to Christ under eight different titles.  These titles connect certain events or ideas from the Old Testament that are understood to forecast different aspects of Jesus and the salvation He came to give.

To see the images these titles reflect, click on the title of the antiphon below:

December 17 -- O Wisdom, O Holy Word of God!

December 18 -- O Sacred Lord of Ancient Israel!

December 19 -- O Flower of Jesse's Stem!

December 20 -- O, Key of David! Come, break down the walls of death!

December 21 -- O Radiant Dawn! O Sun of Justice!

December 22 -- O King of All the Nations!

December 23 -- O Emmanuel! Savior of all people, come and set us free!

In recent years a revival of lay interest in the Liturgy of the Hours has brought more awareness of these special texts.

Here is a video of Ely Cathedral Women's Choir singing the traditional English version of "Veni, Veni, Emmanuel".

© M. Duffy, 2017

+ Image updated 2024.

Nicholas, the Saint Who Became an Elf

+Russian Icon Painter, Saint Nicholas the Wonder Worker

Russian, c. 1300

St. Petersburg, State Hermitage Museum

Happy Feast of Saint Nicholas, the real saint who became Santa Claus!  

I have collected some images of this popular saint that offer a visual explanation of his fascinating history.  

Nicholas started out as a devout Christian in a time when that could cost one's life.  Later he became a charitable and strong-minded bishop who became the patron saint of mariners.  He was given the title "The Wonder Worker" in the eastern Church and was extremely popular in the western Church as well.

But in the last 200 years he has somehow become a jolly old elf.  Here is a short visual history of how this happened.

Iconography of Saint Nicholas

There are several strands in the iconography of Saint Nicholas.  The simplest are images that depict him as a bishop or bishop-saint.  In theses he is frequently seen holding the crozier, the symbol of the role of shepherd of souls which is the duty of a bishop, the miter, which is the distinctive headgear of a bishop, and often one to three golden balls, which represent the alms which the real life Nicholas gave to needy young women as dowries.  These images persist the longest.

The story of that benefaction is one of the most popular of images of Saint Nicholas.

However, there are other images that were often extremely popular representations of this particular saint.  These involve more legendary events supposed to have been actions of the saint.  Among these are the rescue and resuscitation of three young men or boys who had been murdered and pickled by an unscrupulous butcher during a famine, the rescue of mariners at sea during a violent storm, the punishment of a cruel prior and of three condemned men.

Nicholas as Bishop and Saint

+Medallion with Bust of Saint Nicholas
Byzantine, 9th Century
London, British Museum

This is a medallion intended for enameling, but apparently unfinished. The image is created by the little strips of metal, in this case gold, that create a sort of line drawing of the image.  Each little cell will be filled with the enamel paste, containing ground glass and pigment.  When each segment is filled the whole will be heated until the paste has reached the point at which it becomes solidified to create the finished enamelwork.

Saint Nicholas
From the Melisande Psalter
Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem, c. 1131-1143
London, British Library
MS Egerton 1139, fol. 209r

Saint Nicholas With Angels and Pilgrims
German, c. 1246-1255
Soest, Catholic Chapel of Saint Nicholas

+Saint Nicholas, Stained Glass Window
Austrian, c. 1340-1350
New York, Metropolitan Museum of Art. The Cloisters Collection

*Giovanni di Benededtto and Workshop, Saint Nicholas
From a Book of Hours
Italian (Milan), c. 1385-1390
Paris, Bibliotheque nationale de France
MS Latin 757, fol. 396v

*Pietro di Giovanni d'Ambrogio, Saint Nicholas of Bari
Italian, c. Mid-1430s
New York, Metropolitan Museum of Art

*Master of the Hours of Louis of Savoy, Scenes from the Life of Saint Nicholas
From the Hours of Louis of Savoy
French (Savoy), c. 1445-1460
Paris, Bibliotheque nationale de France
MS Latin 9473, fol. 177v

*Saint Nicholas
German, c. 1520
Munich, Cathedral of Our Lady

Hans Georg Asam, Saint Nicholas in Glory
German, c. 1686-1687
Benediktbeuern, Church of Saint Benedikt

Saint Nicholas of Myra
Peruvian, 18th Century
Private Collection

Ordination of Saint Nicholas as Bishop

*Mahiet and Workshop, Saint Nicholas Anointed as Bishop
From a Speculum historiale by Vincent of Beauvais
French (Paris), c. 1335
Paris, Bibliotheque nationale de France
MS Ms-5080 réserve, fol. 307v

*Master of the Livre du Sacre and Workshop, Saint Nicholas Anointed as Bishop
From a Speculum historiale by Vincent of Beauvais
French (Paris), c. 1370-1380
Paris, Bibliotheque nationale de France
MS NAF 15942, fol. 18v

*After a design by Jacob Corneliszoon van Oostsanen, Glass Panel of the Anointing of Saint Nicholas as Bishop
Dutch, 16th Century
New York, Metropolitan Museum of Art, Department of Medieval Art

Stories About Saint Nicholas

The Provision of Dowries

This story from the life of Saint Nicholas is judged by to be the most likely to be something that really happened by many scholars. It tells us that while still a young man, not a bishop, Nicholas became aware of the plight of a poor family with three daughters and no son.  In order to marry each girl needed a dowry.  The dowry was comprised of money, especially gold, and was considered necessary by the family of any potential bridegroom.  The girls father could not provide even one  sum and certainly not three.  Without a husband the girls would have very little financial support when their father died and would, therefore, have to become servants or prostitutes, practically the only options available for a woman in this kind of situation.  Taking pity on them Nicholas, whose family was rich, gave three bags or purses of coins to the family.  In order to remain anonymous in his generosity he threw the bags through the window of their house at night.  All four inhabitants are usually shown in bed.  This makes the illustrations of his deed so interesting.

Saint Nicholas Providing the Dowries
Italian, c. 1278-1279
Rome, Lateran Palace, Chapel of the Sancta Sanctorum

+Saint Nicholas Providing Dowries for the Three Girls
From Livre d'images de Madame Marie
Flemish (Hainaut), c. 1285-1290
Paris, Bibliotheque nationale de France
MS  NAF 16251, fol. 90v

+Ambrogio Lorenzetti, The Charity of Saint Nicholas
Italian, c. 1330-1340
Paris, Musée du Louvre

+Bicci di Lorenzo, Saint Nicholas Providing Dowries
Italian, c. 1433-1435
New York, Metropolitan Museum of Art

*Mahiet and Workshop, Saint Nicholas Giving Alms
From a Speculum historiale by Vincent of Beauvais
French (Paris), c. 1335
Paris, Bibliotheque nationale de France
MS Ms-5080 réserve, fol. 307r

*Saint Nicholas Giving Alms
From a Legenda aurea by Jacobus de Voragine
German, 1362
Munich, Bayerische Staatsbibliothek
MS Cgm 6, fol. 8r

*Giovanni di Benededtto and Workshop, Saint Nicholas Giving Alms
From a Missal
Italian (Milan), c. 1385-1390
Paris, Bibliotheque nationale de France
MS Latin 757, fol. 363v

Master of Jean Rolin or Master of the Dunois Hours, Charity of Saint Nicholas
From the Hours of Simon de Varie
French (Paris), 1455
The Hague, Koninklijk Bibliotheek
MS KB 74 G 37, fol. 84r

+Henri de Vermay II, Saint Nicholas Giving Dowries to the Three Girls
French, c. 1630
Valenciennes, Musée des Beaux-Arts

Saint Nicholas Rescuing Three Boys From the Pickling Barrel

This odd story is usually considered to be a fable, although fables are frequently based on actual fact.  In this story there is a serious famine in the city of Myra. During the famine, an evil, but enterprising, butcher selected three of the less emaciated boys (or youths or young clerics) killed them and placed their bodies in barrels of his pickling brine, intending to pass them off as ham and ham substitutes.  In prayer Saint Nicholas had a vision of their location.  Going to the butcher shop he opened the barrels and prayed for the boys to come to life again, which they did.

This particular story was widely popular and examples survive from a very long period of time.

*Saint Nicholas and the Three Boys
From a Lectionary
French, 12th Century
Charleville-Mézières, Bibliothèque municipale, MS 0258 (vol. 01)

*Saint Nicholas and the Three Pickled Boys
English, First Half of the 14th Century
York, Minster

Saint Nicholas Rescuing the Three Boys
From the Stowe Breviary
English (Norwich), c. 1322-1325
London, British Library
MS Stowe 12, fol. 225

*Richard de Montbaston, Saint Nicholas Saves the Three Boys
From a Legenda aurea by Jacobus de Voragine
French (Paris), 1348
Paris, Bibliotheque nationale de France
MS Francais 241, fol. 10v

*Master of the Mazarine, Saint Nicholas and the Three Boys
From a Book of Hours
French (Paris), c. 1400
Paris, Bibliotheque nationale de France
MS Latin 10538, fol. 223r

+Gentile da Fabriano, Saint Nocolas Rescuing the Three Young Men
Italian, 1425
Vatican City State, Pinacoteca Vaticana

+Bicci di Lorenzo, Saint Nicholas Rescuing Three Youths
Italian, c. 1433-1435
New York, Metropolitan Museum of Art

*Saint Nicholas and the Three Boys
From a Book of Hours
French, c. 1450-1475
Paris, Bibliotheque nationale de France
MS Latin 1175, fol. 146v

+The Rambures Master, Saint Nicholas and the Three Boys
From a Book of Hours
French (Amiens), c. 1455-1465
New York, Pierpont Morgan Library
MS M 194, fol.152v

*Georges Trubert, Saint Nicholas and the Three Boys
From the Diurnal of Rene, King of Sicily
French (Nancy), c. 1492-1493
Paris, Bbiliotheque nationale de France
MS Latin 10491, fol. 217v

*Saint Nicholas with the Three Boys in the Pickling Tub
Flemish, c. 1500
New York, Metropolitan Museum of Art, Department of Medieval Art

+Jean Bourdichon, Saint Nicholas and the Three Boys
From Grandes heures d'Anne de Bretagne
French (Tours), c. 1503-1508
Paris, Bibliotheque nationale de France
MS Latin 9474, fol. 183v

The Rescue of Sailors in a Violent Storm

Another popular iconographic subject was the rescue of mariners from a violent storm at sea.

*Master of the Livre du Sacre and Workshop, Saint Nicholas Saving Mariners
From a Speculum historiale by Vincent of Beauvais
French (Paris), c. 1370-1380
Paris, Bibliotheque nationale de France
MS NAF 15942, fol. 18v

*Gentile da Fabriano, Saint Nicholas Saving a Ship
Italian, 1425
Vatican City, Pinacoteca Vaticana

*Master Francois and Workshop, The Miracle of Saint Nicholas, Saving the Sailors
From a Speculum historiale by Vincent of Beauvais
French (Paris), 1463
Paris, Bibliotheque nationale de France
MS Francais 51, fol. 118r

*After a design by Jacob Corneliszoon van Oostsanen, Glass Panel of Saint Nicholas as Patron of Sailors
Dutch, 16th Century
New York, Metropolitan Museum of Art, Department of Medieval Art

The Cruel Prior

Another story about the activities of Saint Nicholas comes from the Speculum historiale by Vincent of Beauvais, a thirteenth century Dominican scholar, who wrote what amounted to a compendium of all knowledge as it stood at that time.  In other words, a medieval encyclopedia.

In this story, the prior of a monastery was cruel to the monks under his jurisdiction.  So, they prayed for the intercession of God, who sent Saint Nicholas (already deceased and in heaven) to punish the cruel prior.  This Saint Nicholas did by hauling the prior out of bed and beating him with a switch.

It seems likely that this rather astonishing story is the origin of the switch sometimes found in their stockings or shoes by bad girls and boys (along with some coal perhaps) following a visit from Saint Nicholas.

*Mahiet and Workshop, The Cruel Prior
From a Speculum historiale by Vincent of Beauvais
French (Paris), c. 1335
Paris, Bibliotheque nationale de France
MS Ms-5080 réserve, fol. 312r

*Master Francois and Workshop, The Miracle of Saint Nicholas, The Cruel Prior
From a Speculum historiale by Vincent of Beauvais
French (Paris), 1463
Par, Bibliotheque nationale de France
MS Francais 51, fol. 122r

The Transformation into Santa Claus

In the course of the nineteenth century, in both Europe and America, Saint Nicholas began to transform from the strictly religious bishop into something a bit different.  He never quite lost his religious overtones in Europe, in spite of the hostility to saints in the Protestant countries; while in America he transformed into something entirely different, a jolly old elf, with virtually no overtones of his religious origins.

In Nineteenth-Century Europe

Saint Nicholas, Reworked from a 16th Century Portrait of Charles V
Dutch, c. 1814-1830
Amsterdam, Rijksmuseum

Brepols and Dierckxzoon, Saint Nicholas
Dutch, c. 1850-1900
Amsterdam, Rijksmuseum

Jan de Haan, Entry of Saint Nicholas
Dutch, 1870
Amsterdam, Rijksmuseum

Sinterklaas in a Bookstore
Dutch, 1873
Amsterdam, Rijksmuseum

*Willy Sluiter, Jaarbeurs
Cover of De Nieuwe Amsterdamer, 2 March 1918
Dutch, 1918
Amsterdam, Rijksmuseum

*Andreas Untersberger, Alter Freund Sankt Nikolaus
From Fliegende Blaetter, 159.1923, No. 4090, p. 197
German (Munich),. 1923
Heidelberg, The Heidelberg University Library

In this German version of an early 20th century Saint Nicholas, the vestments and regalia of a bishop have been swapped for an American style Santa hat, but the figure of Saint Nicholas is shown arranging the figures of a creche scene, so it remains distinctly within the Christian context.

In the United States

While the European Sinterklaas retained some of his bishop's attire, the American version turned him into something else.  By the middle of the twentieth century he had become merely an elf in a sleigh drawn by reindeer.

Arthur J. Stansbury, The Children's Friend
American, 1821
New York, William Gilley and Company

This is, no doubt, due to the influence of the poem published in 1844 and written by the New Yorker Clement Clarke Moore called "A Visit From Saint Nicholas".  The poem describes not a solemn bishop who rides a horse but a tiny elf who drives a miniature sleigh loaded with toys and powered by a team of "eight tiny reindeer".  You can read the poem here:  https://poets.org/poem/visit-st-nicholas  However, it is clear from the 1821 illustration just above that an idea similar to this had been in circulation twenty years before the poem was published.

American illustrators and artists were quick to give visual form to the image conjured up by the popular poem.

Illustration for "T'was the Night Before Christmas" 

Poem by Clement Clark Moore

Boston, L. Prang and Company, 1864, Page 11

Illustration for "T'was the Night Before Christmas"
Poem by Clement Clark Moore
Boston, L. Prang and Company, 1864, Page 12

Thomas Nast, Illustration for "T'was the Night Before Christmas" by Clement Clark Moore
American, 1869
New York, McLoughlin Brothers

Thomas Nast, Merry Old Santa Claus
Illustration from Harper's Weekly
American, 1881

Christmas Postcard
American, Early 20th Century
New York, New York Public Library Digital Collection

Christmas Postcard
American, c. 1900-1919
New York, New York Public Library Digital Collection

Santa was given his definitive American form by two illustrators who worked for The Saturday Evening Post in the first half of the twentieth century, J. C. Leyendecker and Norman Rockwell.

J.C. Leydendecker, Santa Behind a Window
The Saturday Evening Post
American, 1919

Norman Rockwell, Christmas
The Saturday Evening Post
American, 1927
Note that this Santa has a halo, linking him with his religious past.

By the middle of the century, Santa was very much the figure we see today.  A memorable and long-running series of ads for Coca Cola only cemented this persona in people's minds.

Haddon Sundblom, "They Knew What I Wanted"
American, 1945

The only reminder of his real life and sanctity were: his red suit, an echo of the red vestments worn at Masses on the feast days of martyred saints; his pointy hat, an echo of the bishop's miter, but of softer material; his appearance at night and his generosity.

© M. Duffy, 2017.  In 2024 I added much new material and refreshed many images from the original publication.

+ Indicates an updated image.

* Indicates a new image.