Borobudur: The Architecture of Buddhist Cosmology

Image courtesy of UNESCO (see link below).

Borobudur is a temple located in central Java.  It is a shrine to the Buddha, and a pilgrimage place.  It was built between 750 and 842 CE.  Carved into the base of the temple are 160 carved reliefs, the most complete collection of Buddhist reliefs anywhere in the world.  Looking down on it, one can see a mandala - a microcosm of the universe - a pattern with spiritual and ritual significance for Buddhists and Hindus.

An aerial view of the temple from the Borobudur website (see link below).

The three zones of the universe are exemplified at Borobudur.
The foundation is approximately 387 feet on each side.
Image courtesy of the Borobudur website.

According to Buddhist cosmology, the universe has three zones, represented at Borobudur in rising layers.  The first is Kāmadhātu, the world of desire.  This world is inhabited by common people.  This is the base of the temple, which has been covered by a foundation and is hidden from view except for one corner that has been left uncovered for viewers.  These 160 reliefs carved into this base illustrate the law of cause and effect, and the collection is known as the Mahakarmawibhangga.  They illustrate the behavior of desire, including the invidious behavior of acts such as killing, rape, torture, and robbery.  There is a reckoning in the afterlife depicted for those committing these acts.  There are also reliefs showing meritorious behavior such as charity and working together.  When the base was dismantled and the reliefs discovered, they were photographed by Casijan Chepas in 1890.  These photographs are on view in the site museum.

The Buddha's mother, Queen Maya, retreats to Lumbini so that she may give
birth to Siddhartha Gautama, the future Buddha.  This is one of the reliefs from
the base, which do not depict a continuous story, nor are they all related to the
Buddha.  Beside the blameworthy and praiseworthy activities, they show other
aspects of everyday life.  This image and the one below courtesy of Wikipedia.

Here Siddhartha Gautama shaves his head in his preparations to become an ascetic.

Rupadhatu, or the world of forms, is the second layer.  It is a transitional zone, where humans are released from their desires for the physical world.  They continue living in the world and see forms but are not desirous of them.  This is comprised of four tiers, which have galleries of carved reliefs and niches with 432 statues of the Buddha, as well as depictions of Sanskrit manuscripts.  The top layer is Arupadhatu, the world of formlessness.  This is the abode of those who have become Buddhas.  These terraces have stupas containing Buddha sculptures that face outward.  The central stupa is empty; it is unknown if whatever was inside was removed, or whether it was always empty.

This image and the one below courtesy of Wikipedia.

There are no written documents that reveal who built Borobudur, but it is generally held that it was a ruler in the Sailendra dynasty, as the temple was built in the peak of their reign.  There is a lot of confusion as to the religious preferences of rulers at that time, but because known Buddhist kings allowed Hindu monuments to be built, and vice versa, it suggests a climate of tolerance existed.  There is a Hindu complex nearby known as Prambanan, which likewise has three levels corresponding to the zones of Borobudur.

Prambanan - the Hindu temple compound that also has three levels or zones.
This has suffered much earthquake damage, but is used by local Hindus today.
Image courtesy of the Borobudur website.

There are two smaller temples that appear in a straight line leading to Borobudur, Mendut and Pawon.  Although the exact relationship between the three temples is unknown, today they are part of a procession in the Waisak day festival.  This is held each year on the day of the full moon in April or May, commemorating the birth, enlightenment, and death of the Buddha.  It is an important day in the Buddhist calendar, and pilgrims from all over the world come to take part in the procession from temple to temple, ending at Borobudur.

Image courtesy of the Borobudur website.

Although it is unknown why Borobudur was abandoned, and there may have been many reasons, volcanic activity surely had a part.  When discovered, the site was covered in volcanic ash.  The capital of the kingdom was moved to East Java; then in the 15th century, there was a conversion to Islam.  All of these contributed to the desertion of the site, and it continued only in memory through local tales for centuries.

Mount Merapi seen ominously smoking in 2009.  Image courtesy of Wikipedia.

When the British took over Java in 1811, Sir Thomas Raffles was appointed governor.  He had an interest in Javanese history, and listened to the rumors about a big monument in the jungle.  He had the site cleaned, and the reliefs documented and interpreted.  In 1885, the hidden reliefs were found, which also had Sanskrit instructions left for the carver, from which the construction was datable.  Over the pursuing years the site was restored, and water damage from inadequate drainage was corrected.  After a 1973 renovation funded by UNESCO, Borobudur was used once again for worship.

Image courtesy of Wikipedia.

As an interesting aside, in 1982 Philip Beale, previously of the British Royal Navy, was in Indonesia to study ships and marine traditions.  He found ten panels at Borobudur showing sea vessels - some powered by oars, others by sails.  He thought since the other panels showed everyday life, these ships may have been part of the Cinnamon Route - a shipping route linking Indonesia to Africa across the Indian Ocean, past the Seychelles, Madagascar, and the Cape of Good Hope to Ghana.  With the help of experienced Indonesian shipbuilders, he had a ship modeled on the stone carvings constructed.  It was then launched on an expedition to retrace the route to Ghana.  The expedition took six months, demonstrating that ancient trading routes were viable.  The ship - the Samudra Raksa, "defender of the seas", is housed in a museum in Borobudur Archaeological Park.

The stone relief of an Indonesian trade ship.

The full-scale reconstruction of the above ship, here stored at the Borobudur site.
Both images courtesy of Wikipedia.

UNESCO made Borobudur a world heritage site in 1991.  Today it is the most visited tourist site in Indonesia, attracting pilgrims and art and architecture lovers alike.  A marvel when it was built, it is still one today.

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The Borobudur Archaeological Park website is here.

The UNESCO website for Borobudur is here.

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The World's Other Biggest Book

The Kuthodaw Pagoda viewed from the southeast.

Last November I wrote about the world’s largest book – Bhutan:  A Visual Odyssey Across the Last Himalayan Kingdom – which holds the Guinness World Record.  However, there is an older “book”, albeit not on paper.  With "pages" much the same size, it is inscribed on marble and was finished in 1868.  One can see it at the Kuthodaw Pagoda in Mandalay.

The complex at the foot of Mandalay Hill.

Mandalay is in Myanmar, the Asian country once known as Burma.  The Kuthodaw Pagoda is a stupa, which is a domed edifice that contains Buddhist (or sometimes Jain) relics.  This stupa is 188 feet high and is modeled on another one in Myanmar, the Shwezigon Pagoda near Bagan, which is the prototype for Burmese stupas and was built in 1102 CE. 

The Kuthodaw Pagoda viewed from the south.

“Kuthodaw” means “royal merit”, and gaining merit is of importance to Buddhists.  Someone can do that for themselves or for others, and one way is to build something significant.  Mindon Min was the penultimate ruler of Myanmar, and one of the most popular and revered kings.  He had the pagoda complex built at the foot of Mandalay Hill as part of the foundation of the new royal city of Mandalay in 1857.  He wanted to leave a work of great merit that had serious relevance to Buddhists.  So he took on a monumental project.

King Mindon Min.

The Kuthodaw Pagoda complex contains 730 small structures, called kyuksa gu (meaning “stone inscription cave” in Burmese), each housing a marble slab.  (Although you will often read there are 729 of them, there is an additional one on the southeast corner.)  Each marble slab is inscribed on both sides with the entire Tipitaka Pali canon.  This is the standard collection of scriptures in the Theravada Buddhist tradition written in the Pali language.  It is the only complete early Buddhist canon.  Originally composed in India, it was handed down orally until 29 BCE, when it was written down at the Fourth Buddhist Council in Sri Lanka.

Some of the kyuksa gu, containing the marble slabs.

Each marble slab is 3.5 feet wide, 5 feet tall, and 5 inches thick.  The marble was quarried 32 miles away and transported by river to the site.  There are 80 to 100 lines of text on both sides of each slab.  Scribes carefully copied the text on the marble for the stonemasons, who chiseled it out and originally filled it in with gold ink.  It took a scribe three days to copy text on both sides of the slab, and the stonemasons could finish up to 16 lines a day.  It took almost eight years to complete the marble slabs.  729 of them contain the Tipitaka, and the 730th slab has text recording how it all came about.

One of the slabs.  Note the very rounded script of the Burmese language.

The entire complex had gold overlay and jewels for decoration.  When the British invaded, they vandalized the buildings and images, and looted the gems and other valuables.  After a successful petition to Queen Victoria, the troops were withdrawn from religious sites.  Restoration began in 1892 with a group that included members of the royal family.  King Mindon Min had died in 1878, but it was tradition for relatives of the donor to be involved in repairs.  The repair committee also included senior monks, and former officers of the king.  The public participated as well.  The complex was never restored to its former glory, however.  The gold letters on the marble slabs were covered in black ink, which made it easier to read.

Gold inscription of Kuthodaw's formal title - Mahalawka Marazein.

In 1900 a print copy of the Tipitaka Pali canon was published in a set of 38 volumes in Royal Octavo size of about 400 pages each in Great Primer type.  The publisher was Philip H. Ripley of Hanthawaddy Press.  He was an Armenian born in Myanmar and brought up in the royal court.  He claimed that his production was true to the text on the marble slabs.

The Tipitaka set in stone was meant by King Mindon Min to last five millennia after the Buddha, who lived circa 500 BCE.  Halfway to that goal, the Kuthodaw Pagoda is still a respected Buddhist site, and a popular destination for scholars, tourists and devout Buddhists.

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Images courtesy of Wikipedia.

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