Changeset 391 for python/trunk/Doc/library/os.rst

Timestamp:

Mar 19, 2014, 11:31:01 PM (11 years ago)

Author:

dmik

Message:

python: Merge vendor 2.7.6 to trunk.

Location:

python/trunk

Files:

• . (modified) (1 prop)
• Doc/library/os.rst (modified) (150 diffs)

python/trunk/Doc/library/os.rst

@@ -14 +14 @@
 module.
 
-The design of all built-in operating system dependent modules of Python is such
-that as long as the same functionality is available, it uses the same interface;
-for example, the function ``os.stat(path)`` returns stat information about
-*path* in the same format (which happens to have originated with the POSIX
-interface).
-
-Extensions peculiar to a particular operating system are also available through
-the :mod:`os` module, but using them is of course a threat to portability!
-
-.. note::
-
-   If not separately noted, all functions that claim "Availability: Unix" are
-   supported on Mac OS X, which builds on a Unix core.
+Notes on the availability of these functions:
+
+* The design of all built-in operating system dependent modules of Python is
+  such that as long as the same functionality is available, it uses the same
+  interface; for example, the function ``os.stat(path)`` returns stat
+  information about *path* in the same format (which happens to have originated
+  with the POSIX interface).
+
+* Extensions peculiar to a particular operating system are also available
+  through the :mod:`os` module, but using them is of course a threat to
+  portability.
+
+* An "Availability: Unix" note means that this function is commonly found on
+  Unix systems.  It does not make any claims about its existence on a specific
+  operating system.
+
+* If not separately noted, all functions that claim "Availability: Unix" are
+  supported on Mac OS X, which builds on a Unix core.
+
+.. Availability notes get their own line and occur at the end of the function
+.. documentation.
 
 .. note::
@@ -42 +50 @@
 .. data:: name
 
-   The name of the operating system dependent module imported.  The following names
-   have currently been registered: ``'posix'``, ``'nt'``, ``'mac'``, ``'os2'``,
-   ``'ce'``, ``'java'``, ``'riscos'``.
+   The name of the operating system dependent module imported.  The following
+   names have currently been registered: ``'posix'``, ``'nt'``,
+   ``'os2'``, ``'ce'``, ``'java'``, ``'riscos'``.
+
+   .. seealso::
+      :attr:`sys.platform` has a finer granularity.  :func:`os.uname` gives
+      system-dependent version information.
+
+      The :mod:`platform` module provides detailed checks for the
+      system's identity.
 
 
@@ -58 +73 @@
 .. data:: environ
 
-   A mapping object representing the string environment. For example,
+   A :term:`mapping` object representing the string environment. For example,
    ``environ['HOME']`` is the pathname of your home directory (on some platforms),
    and is equivalent to ``getenv("HOME")`` in C.
@@ -80 +95 @@
       On some platforms, including FreeBSD and Mac OS X, setting ``environ`` may
       cause memory leaks.  Refer to the system documentation for
-      :cfunc:`putenv`.
+      :c:func:`putenv`.
 
    If :func:`putenv` is not provided, a modified copy of this mapping  may be
@@ -107 +122 @@
 
    Return the filename corresponding to the controlling terminal of the process.
+
    Availability: Unix.
 
@@ -113 +129 @@
 
    Return the effective group id of the current process.  This corresponds to the
-   "set id" bit on the file being executed in the current process. Availability:
-   Unix.
+   "set id" bit on the file being executed in the current process.
+
+   Availability: Unix.
 
 
@@ -121 +138 @@
    .. index:: single: user; effective id
 
-   Return the current process's effective user id. Availability: Unix.
+   Return the current process's effective user id.
+
+   Availability: Unix.
 
 
@@ -128 +147 @@
    .. index:: single: process; group
 
-   Return the real group id of the current process. Availability: Unix.
+   Return the real group id of the current process.
+
+   Availability: Unix.
 
 
@@ -134 +155 @@
 
    Return list of supplemental group ids associated with the current process.
-   Availability: Unix.
+
+   Availability: Unix.
+
+   .. note:: On Mac OS X, :func:`getgroups` behavior differs somewhat from
+      other Unix platforms. If the Python interpreter was built with a
+      deployment target of :const:`10.5` or earlier, :func:`getgroups` returns
+      the list of effective group ids associated with the current user process;
+      this list is limited to a system-defined number of entries, typically 16,
+      and may be modified by calls to :func:`setgroups` if suitably privileged.
+      If built with a deployment target greater than :const:`10.5`,
+      :func:`getgroups` returns the current group access list for the user
+      associated with the effective user id of the process; the group access
+      list may change over the lifetime of the process, it is not affected by
+      calls to :func:`setgroups`, and its length is not limited to 16.  The
+      deployment target value, :const:`MACOSX_DEPLOYMENT_TARGET`, can be
+      obtained with :func:`sysconfig.get_config_var`.
+
+
+.. function:: initgroups(username, gid)
+
+   Call the system initgroups() to initialize the group access list with all of
+   the groups of which the specified username is a member, plus the specified
+   group id.
+
+   Availability: Unix.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 2.7
 
 
@@ -143 +190 @@
    :envvar:`LOGNAME` to find out who the user is, or
    ``pwd.getpwuid(os.getuid())[0]`` to get the login name of the currently
-   effective user id. Availability: Unix.
+   effective user id.
+
+   Availability: Unix.
 
 
@@ -149 +198 @@
 
    Return the process group id of the process with process id *pid*. If *pid* is 0,
-   the process group id of the current process is returned. Availability: Unix.
+   the process group id of the current process is returned.
+
+   Availability: Unix.
 
    .. versionadded:: 2.3
@@ -158 +209 @@
    .. index:: single: process; group
 
-   Return the id of the current process group. Availability: Unix.
+   Return the id of the current process group.
+
+   Availability: Unix.
 
 
@@ -165 +218 @@
    .. index:: single: process; id
 
-   Return the current process id. Availability: Unix, Windows.
+   Return the current process id.
+
+   Availability: Unix, Windows.
 
 
@@ -172 +227 @@
    .. index:: single: process; id of parent
 
-   Return the parent's process id. Availability: Unix.
+   Return the parent's process id.
+
+   Availability: Unix.
+
+
+.. function:: getresuid()
+
+   Return a tuple (ruid, euid, suid) denoting the current process's
+   real, effective, and saved user ids.
+
+   Availability: Unix.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 2.7
+
+
+.. function:: getresgid()
+
+   Return a tuple (rgid, egid, sgid) denoting the current process's
+   real, effective, and saved group ids.
+
+   Availability: Unix.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 2.7
 
 
@@ -179 +256 @@
    .. index:: single: user; id
 
-   Return the current process's user id. Availability: Unix.
+   Return the current process's user id.
+
+   Availability: Unix.
 
 
@@ -185 +264 @@
 
    Return the value of the environment variable *varname* if it exists, or *value*
-   if it doesn't.  *value* defaults to ``None``. Availability: most flavors of
-   Unix, Windows.
+   if it doesn't.  *value* defaults to ``None``.
+
+   Availability: most flavors of Unix, Windows.
 
 
@@ -195 +275 @@
    Set the environment variable named *varname* to the string *value*.  Such
    changes to the environment affect subprocesses started with :func:`os.system`,
-   :func:`popen` or :func:`fork` and :func:`execv`. Availability: most flavors of
-   Unix, Windows.
+   :func:`popen` or :func:`fork` and :func:`execv`.
+
+   Availability: most flavors of Unix, Windows.
 
    .. note::
@@ -211 +292 @@
 .. function:: setegid(egid)
 
-   Set the current process's effective group id. Availability: Unix.
+   Set the current process's effective group id.
+
+   Availability: Unix.
 
 
 .. function:: seteuid(euid)
 
-   Set the current process's effective user id. Availability: Unix.
+   Set the current process's effective user id.
+
+   Availability: Unix.
 
 
 .. function:: setgid(gid)
 
-   Set the current process' group id. Availability: Unix.
+   Set the current process' group id.
+
+   Availability: Unix.
 
 
@@ -229 +316 @@
    *groups*. *groups* must be a sequence, and each element must be an integer
    identifying a group. This operation is typically available only to the superuser.
+
    Availability: Unix.
 
    .. versionadded:: 2.2
 
+   .. note:: On Mac OS X, the length of *groups* may not exceed the
+      system-defined maximum number of effective group ids, typically 16.
+      See the documentation for :func:`getgroups` for cases where it may not
+      return the same group list set by calling setgroups().
 
 .. function:: setpgrp()
 
-   Call the system call :cfunc:`setpgrp` or :cfunc:`setpgrp(0, 0)` depending on
+   Call the system call :c:func:`setpgrp` or :c:func:`setpgrp(0, 0)` depending on
    which version is implemented (if any).  See the Unix manual for the semantics.
+
    Availability: Unix.
 
@@ -243 +336 @@
 .. function:: setpgid(pid, pgrp)
 
-   Call the system call :cfunc:`setpgid` to set the process group id of the
+   Call the system call :c:func:`setpgid` to set the process group id of the
    process with id *pid* to the process group with id *pgrp*.  See the Unix manual
-   for the semantics. Availability: Unix.
+   for the semantics.
+
+   Availability: Unix.
+
+
+.. function:: setregid(rgid, egid)
+
+   Set the current process's real and effective group ids.
+
+   Availability: Unix.
+
+
+.. function:: setresgid(rgid, egid, sgid)
+
+   Set the current process's real, effective, and saved group ids.
+
+   Availability: Unix.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 2.7
+
+
+.. function:: setresuid(ruid, euid, suid)
+
+   Set the current process's real, effective, and saved user ids.
+
+   Availability: Unix.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 2.7
 
 
 .. function:: setreuid(ruid, euid)
 
-   Set the current process's real and effective user ids. Availability: Unix.
-
-
-.. function:: setregid(rgid, egid)
-
-   Set the current process's real and effective group ids. Availability: Unix.
+   Set the current process's real and effective user ids.
+
+   Availability: Unix.
 
 
 .. function:: getsid(pid)
 
-   Call the system call :cfunc:`getsid`.  See the Unix manual for the semantics.
+   Call the system call :c:func:`getsid`.  See the Unix manual for the semantics.
+
    Availability: Unix.
 
@@ -268 +386 @@
 .. function:: setsid()
 
-   Call the system call :cfunc:`setsid`.  See the Unix manual for the semantics.
+   Call the system call :c:func:`setsid`.  See the Unix manual for the semantics.
+
    Availability: Unix.
 
@@ -276 +395 @@
    .. index:: single: user; id, setting
 
-   Set the current process's user id. Availability: Unix.
+   Set the current process's user id.
+
+   Availability: Unix.
 
 
@@ -283 +404 @@
 
    Return the error message corresponding to the error code in *code*.
-   On platforms where :cfunc:`strerror` returns ``NULL`` when given an unknown
-   error number, :exc:`ValueError` is raised.  Availability: Unix, Windows.
+   On platforms where :c:func:`strerror` returns ``NULL`` when given an unknown
+   error number, :exc:`ValueError` is raised.
+
+   Availability: Unix, Windows.
 
 
 .. function:: umask(mask)
 
-   Set the current numeric umask and return the previous umask. Availability:
-   Unix, Windows.
+   Set the current numeric umask and return the previous umask.
+
+   Availability: Unix, Windows.
 
 
@@ -304 +428 @@
    leading component; a better way to get the hostname is
    :func:`socket.gethostname`  or even
-   ``socket.gethostbyaddr(socket.gethostname())``. Availability: recent flavors of
-   Unix.
+   ``socket.gethostbyaddr(socket.gethostname())``.
+
+   Availability: recent flavors of Unix.
 
 
@@ -314 +439 @@
    Unset (delete) the environment variable named *varname*. Such changes to the
    environment affect subprocesses started with :func:`os.system`, :func:`popen` or
-   :func:`fork` and :func:`execv`. Availability: most flavors of Unix, Windows.
+   :func:`fork` and :func:`execv`.
 
    When :func:`unsetenv` is supported, deletion of items in ``os.environ`` is
@@ -321 +446 @@
    preferable to delete items of ``os.environ``.
 
+   Availability: most flavors of Unix, Windows.
+
 
 .. _os-newstreams:
@@ -336 +463 @@
    Return an open file object connected to the file descriptor *fd*.  The *mode*
    and *bufsize* arguments have the same meaning as the corresponding arguments to
-   the built-in :func:`open` function. Availability: Unix, Windows.
+   the built-in :func:`open` function.
+
+   Availability: Unix, Windows.
 
    .. versionchanged:: 2.3
@@ -344 +473 @@
    .. versionchanged:: 2.5
       On Unix, when the *mode* argument starts with ``'a'``, the *O_APPEND* flag is
-      set on the file descriptor (which the :cfunc:`fdopen` implementation already
+      set on the file descriptor (which the :c:func:`fdopen` implementation already
       does on most platforms).
 
@@ -357 +486 @@
    available as the return value of the :meth:`~file.close` method of the file object,
    except that when the exit status is zero (termination without errors), ``None``
-   is returned. Availability: Unix, Windows.
+   is returned.
+
+   Availability: Unix, Windows.
 
    .. deprecated:: 2.6
@@ -365 +496 @@
    .. versionchanged:: 2.0
       This function worked unreliably under Windows in earlier versions of Python.
-      This was due to the use of the :cfunc:`_popen` function from the libraries
+      This was due to the use of the :c:func:`_popen` function from the libraries
       provided with Windows.  Newer versions of Python do not use the broken
       implementation from the Windows libraries.
@@ -374 +505 @@
    Return a new file object opened in update mode (``w+b``).  The file has no
    directory entries associated with it and will be automatically deleted once
-   there are no file descriptors for the file. Availability: Unix,
-   Windows.
+   there are no file descriptors for the file.
+
+   Availability: Unix, Windows.
 
 There are a number of different :func:`popen\*` functions that provide slightly
@@ -468 +600 @@
 by file descriptors.
 
+The :meth:`~file.fileno` method can be used to obtain the file descriptor
+associated with a file object when required.  Note that using the file
+descriptor directly will bypass the file object methods, ignoring aspects such
+as internal buffering of data.
 
 .. function:: close(fd)
 
-   Close file descriptor *fd*. Availability: Unix, Windows.
+   Close file descriptor *fd*.
+
+   Availability: Unix, Windows.
 
    .. note::
@@ -478 +616 @@
       descriptor as returned by :func:`os.open` or :func:`pipe`.  To close a "file
       object" returned by the built-in function :func:`open` or by :func:`popen` or
-      :func:`fdopen`, use its :meth:`~file.close` method.
+      :func:`fdopen`, use its :meth:`~io.IOBase.close` method.
 
 
@@ -484 +622 @@
 
    Close all file descriptors from *fd_low* (inclusive) to *fd_high* (exclusive),
-   ignoring errors. Availability: Unix, Windows. Equivalent to::
+   ignoring errors. Equivalent to::
 
       for fd in xrange(fd_low, fd_high):
@@ -492 +630 @@
               pass
 
+   Availability: Unix, Windows.
+
    .. versionadded:: 2.6
 
@@ -497 +637 @@
 .. function:: dup(fd)
 
-   Return a duplicate of file descriptor *fd*. Availability: Unix,
-   Windows.
+   Return a duplicate of file descriptor *fd*.
+
+   Availability: Unix, Windows.
 
 
@@ -504 +645 @@
 
    Duplicate file descriptor *fd* to *fd2*, closing the latter first if necessary.
+
    Availability: Unix, Windows.
 
@@ -510 +652 @@
 
    Change the mode of the file given by *fd* to the numeric *mode*.  See the docs
-   for :func:`chmod` for possible values of *mode*.  Availability: Unix.
+   for :func:`chmod` for possible values of *mode*.
+
+   Availability: Unix.
 
    .. versionadded:: 2.6
@@ -519 +663 @@
    Change the owner and group id of the file given by *fd* to the numeric *uid*
    and *gid*.  To leave one of the ids unchanged, set it to -1.
+
    Availability: Unix.
 
@@ -527 +672 @@
 
    Force write of file with filedescriptor *fd* to disk. Does not force update of
-   metadata. Availability: Unix.
+   metadata.
+
+   Availability: Unix.
 
    .. note::
@@ -542 +689 @@
    given in the ``pathconf_names`` dictionary.  For configuration variables not
    included in that mapping, passing an integer for *name* is also accepted.
-   Availability: Unix.
 
    If *name* is a string and is not known, :exc:`ValueError` is raised.  If a
@@ -549 +695 @@
    :const:`errno.EINVAL` for the error number.
 
+   Availability: Unix.
+
 
 .. function:: fstat(fd)
 
-   Return status for file descriptor *fd*, like :func:`stat`. Availability:
-   Unix, Windows.
+   Return status for file descriptor *fd*, like :func:`~os.stat`.
+
+   Availability: Unix, Windows.
 
 
@@ -559 +708 @@
 
    Return information about the filesystem containing the file associated with file
-   descriptor *fd*, like :func:`statvfs`. Availability: Unix.
+   descriptor *fd*, like :func:`statvfs`.
+
+   Availability: Unix.
 
 
@@ -565 +716 @@
 
    Force write of file with filedescriptor *fd* to disk.  On Unix, this calls the
-   native :cfunc:`fsync` function; on Windows, the MS :cfunc:`_commit` function.
+   native :c:func:`fsync` function; on Windows, the MS :c:func:`_commit` function.
 
    If you're starting with a Python file object *f*, first do ``f.flush()``, and
    then do ``os.fsync(f.fileno())``, to ensure that all internal buffers associated
-   with *f* are written to disk. Availability: Unix, and Windows
-   starting in 2.2.3.
+   with *f* are written to disk.
+
+   Availability: Unix, and Windows starting in 2.2.3.
 
 
@@ -576 +728 @@
 
    Truncate the file corresponding to file descriptor *fd*, so that it is at most
-   *length* bytes in size. Availability: Unix.
+   *length* bytes in size.
+
+   Availability: Unix.
 
 
@@ -582 +736 @@
 
    Return ``True`` if the file descriptor *fd* is open and connected to a
-   tty(-like) device, else ``False``. Availability: Unix.
+   tty(-like) device, else ``False``.
 
 
@@ -590 +744 @@
    by *how*: :const:`SEEK_SET` or ``0`` to set the position relative to the
    beginning of the file; :const:`SEEK_CUR` or ``1`` to set it relative to the
-   current position; :const:`os.SEEK_END` or ``2`` to set it relative to the end of
-   the file. Availability: Unix, Windows.
+   current position; :const:`SEEK_END` or ``2`` to set it relative to the end of
+   the file.
+
+   Availability: Unix, Windows.
+
+
+.. data:: SEEK_SET
+          SEEK_CUR
+          SEEK_END
+
+   Parameters to the :func:`lseek` function. Their values are 0, 1, and 2,
+   respectively.
+
+   Availability: Windows, Unix.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 2.5
 
 
@@ -599 +767 @@
    mode according to *mode*. The default *mode* is ``0777`` (octal), and the
    current umask value is first masked out.  Return the file descriptor for the
-   newly opened file. Availability: Unix, Windows.
+   newly opened file.
 
    For a description of the flag and mode values, see the C run-time documentation;
    flag constants (like :const:`O_RDONLY` and :const:`O_WRONLY`) are defined in
-   this module too (see below).
+   this module too (see :ref:`open-constants`).  In particular, on Windows adding
+   :const:`O_BINARY` is needed to open files in binary mode.
+
+   Availability: Unix, Windows.
 
    .. note::
@@ -619 +790 @@
    Open a new pseudo-terminal pair. Return a pair of file descriptors ``(master,
    slave)`` for the pty and the tty, respectively. For a (slightly) more portable
-   approach, use the :mod:`pty` module. Availability: some flavors of
-   Unix.
+   approach, use the :mod:`pty` module.
+
+   Availability: some flavors of Unix.
 
 
@@ -626 +798 @@
 
    Create a pipe.  Return a pair of file descriptors ``(r, w)`` usable for reading
-   and writing, respectively. Availability: Unix, Windows.
+   and writing, respectively.
+
+   Availability: Unix, Windows.
 
 
@@ -633 +807 @@
    Read at most *n* bytes from file descriptor *fd*. Return a string containing the
    bytes read.  If the end of the file referred to by *fd* has been reached, an
-   empty string is returned. Availability: Unix, Windows.
+   empty string is returned.
+
+   Availability: Unix, Windows.
 
    .. note::
@@ -647 +823 @@
 
    Return the process group associated with the terminal given by *fd* (an open
-   file descriptor as returned by :func:`os.open`). Availability: Unix.
+   file descriptor as returned by :func:`os.open`).
+
+   Availability: Unix.
 
 
@@ -653 +831 @@
 
    Set the process group associated with the terminal given by *fd* (an open file
-   descriptor as returned by :func:`os.open`) to *pg*. Availability: Unix.
+   descriptor as returned by :func:`os.open`) to *pg*.
+
+   Availability: Unix.
 
 
@@ -660 +840 @@
    Return a string which specifies the terminal device associated with
    file descriptor *fd*.  If *fd* is not associated with a terminal device, an
-   exception is raised. Availability: Unix.
+   exception is raised.
+
+   Availability: Unix.
 
 
@@ -666 +848 @@
 
    Write the string *str* to file descriptor *fd*. Return the number of bytes
-   actually written. Availability: Unix, Windows.
+   actually written.
+
+   Availability: Unix, Windows.
 
    .. note::
@@ -675 +859 @@
       :func:`fdopen`, or :data:`sys.stdout` or :data:`sys.stderr`, use its
       :meth:`~file.write` method.
+
+
+.. _open-constants:
+
+``open()`` flag constants
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
 
 The following constants are options for the *flags* parameter to the
@@ -727 +917 @@
 
 
-.. data:: SEEK_SET
-          SEEK_CUR
-          SEEK_END
-
-   Parameters to the :func:`lseek` function. Their values are 0, 1, and 2,
-   respectively. Availability: Windows, Unix.
-
-   .. versionadded:: 2.5
-
-
 .. _os-file-dir:
 
@@ -751 +931 @@
    :const:`X_OK` to test permissions.  Return :const:`True` if access is allowed,
    :const:`False` if not. See the Unix man page :manpage:`access(2)` for more
-   information. Availability: Unix, Windows.
+   information.
+
+   Availability: Unix, Windows.
 
    .. note::
@@ -758 +940 @@
       before actually doing so using :func:`open` creates a security hole,
       because the user might exploit the short time interval between checking
-      and opening the file to manipulate it.
+      and opening the file to manipulate it. It's preferable to use :term:`EAFP`
+      techniques. For example::
+
+         if os.access("myfile", os.R_OK):
+             with open("myfile") as fp:
+                 return fp.read()
+         return "some default data"
+
+      is better written as::
+
+         try:
+             fp = open("myfile")
+         except IOError as e:
+             if e.errno == errno.EACCES:
+                 return "some default data"
+             # Not a permission error.
+             raise
+         else:
+             with fp:
+                 return fp.read()
 
    .. note::
@@ -795 +996 @@
    .. index:: single: directory; changing
 
-   Change the current working directory to *path*. Availability: Unix,
-   Windows.
+   Change the current working directory to *path*.
+
+   Availability: Unix, Windows.
 
 
@@ -803 +1005 @@
    Change the current working directory to the directory represented by the file
    descriptor *fd*.  The descriptor must refer to an opened directory, not an open
-   file. Availability: Unix.
+   file.
+
+   Availability: Unix.
 
    .. versionadded:: 2.3
@@ -810 +1014 @@
 .. function:: getcwd()
 
-   Return a string representing the current working directory. Availability:
-   Unix, Windows.
+   Return a string representing the current working directory.
+
+   Availability: Unix, Windows.
 
 
@@ -817 +1022 @@
 
    Return a Unicode object representing the current working directory.
+
    Availability: Unix, Windows.
 
@@ -827 +1033 @@
    (bitwise OR) of the following values (as defined in the :mod:`stat` module):
 
-   * ``UF_NODUMP``
-   * ``UF_IMMUTABLE``
-   * ``UF_APPEND``
-   * ``UF_OPAQUE``
-   * ``UF_NOUNLINK``
-   * ``SF_ARCHIVED``
-   * ``SF_IMMUTABLE``
-   * ``SF_APPEND``
-   * ``SF_NOUNLINK``
-   * ``SF_SNAPSHOT``
+   * :data:`stat.UF_NODUMP`
+   * :data:`stat.UF_IMMUTABLE`
+   * :data:`stat.UF_APPEND`
+   * :data:`stat.UF_OPAQUE`
+   * :data:`stat.UF_NOUNLINK`
+   * :data:`stat.UF_COMPRESSED`
+   * :data:`stat.UF_HIDDEN`
+   * :data:`stat.SF_ARCHIVED`
+   * :data:`stat.SF_IMMUTABLE`
+   * :data:`stat.SF_APPEND`
+   * :data:`stat.SF_NOUNLINK`
+   * :data:`stat.SF_SNAPSHOT`
 
    Availability: Unix.
@@ -891 +1099 @@
 
    Change the owner and group id of *path* to the numeric *uid* and *gid*. To leave
-   one of the ids unchanged, set it to -1. Availability: Unix.
+   one of the ids unchanged, set it to -1.
+
+   Availability: Unix.
 
 
@@ -897 +1107 @@
 
    Set the flags of *path* to the numeric *flags*, like :func:`chflags`, but do not
-   follow symbolic links. Availability: Unix.
+   follow symbolic links.
+
+   Availability: Unix.
 
    .. versionadded:: 2.6
@@ -906 +1118 @@
    Change the mode of *path* to the numeric *mode*. If path is a symlink, this
    affects the symlink rather than the target. See the docs for :func:`chmod`
-   for possible values of *mode*.  Availability: Unix.
+   for possible values of *mode*.
+
+   Availability: Unix.
 
    .. versionadded:: 2.6
@@ -914 +1128 @@
 
    Change the owner and group id of *path* to the numeric *uid* and *gid*. This
-   function will not follow symbolic links. Availability: Unix.
+   function will not follow symbolic links.
+
+   Availability: Unix.
 
    .. versionadded:: 2.3
@@ -921 +1137 @@
 .. function:: link(source, link_name)
 
-   Create a hard link pointing to *source* named *link_name*. Availability:
-   Unix.
+   Create a hard link pointing to *source* named *link_name*.
+
+   Availability: Unix.
 
 
@@ -930 +1147 @@
    *path*.  The list is in arbitrary order.  It does not include the special
    entries ``'.'`` and ``'..'`` even if they are present in the
-   directory.  Availability: Unix, Windows.
+   directory.
+
+   Availability: Unix, Windows.
 
    .. versionchanged:: 2.3
@@ -940 +1159 @@
 .. function:: lstat(path)
 
-   Like :func:`stat`, but do not follow symbolic links.  This is an alias for
-   :func:`stat` on platforms that do not support symbolic links, such as
-   Windows.
+   Perform the equivalent of an :c:func:`lstat` system call on the given path.
+   Similar to :func:`~os.stat`, but does not follow symbolic links.  On
+   platforms that do not support symbolic links, this is an alias for
+   :func:`~os.stat`.
 
 
@@ -949 +1169 @@
    Create a FIFO (a named pipe) named *path* with numeric mode *mode*.  The default
    *mode* is ``0666`` (octal).  The current umask value is first masked out from
-   the mode. Availability: Unix.
+   the mode.
+
+   Availability: Unix.
 
    FIFOs are pipes that can be accessed like regular files.  FIFOs exist until they
@@ -958 +1180 @@
 
 
-.. function:: mknod(filename[, mode=0600, device])
+.. function:: mknod(filename[, mode=0600[, device=0]])
 
    Create a filesystem node (file, device special file or named pipe) named
@@ -975 +1197 @@
 
    Extract the device major number from a raw device number (usually the
-   :attr:`st_dev` or :attr:`st_rdev` field from :ctype:`stat`).
+   :attr:`st_dev` or :attr:`st_rdev` field from :c:type:`stat`).
 
    .. versionadded:: 2.3
@@ -983 +1205 @@
 
    Extract the device minor number from a raw device number (usually the
-   :attr:`st_dev` or :attr:`st_rdev` field from :ctype:`stat`).
+   :attr:`st_dev` or :attr:`st_rdev` field from :c:type:`stat`).
 
    .. versionadded:: 2.3
@@ -999 +1221 @@
    Create a directory named *path* with numeric mode *mode*. The default *mode* is
    ``0777`` (octal).  On some systems, *mode* is ignored.  Where it is used, the
-   current umask value is first masked out. Availability: Unix, Windows.
+   current umask value is first masked out.  If the directory already exists,
+   :exc:`OSError` is raised.
 
    It is also possible to create temporary directories; see the
    :mod:`tempfile` module's :func:`tempfile.mkdtemp` function.
+
+   Availability: Unix, Windows.
 
 
@@ -1012 +1237 @@
 
    Recursive directory creation function.  Like :func:`mkdir`, but makes all
-   intermediate-level directories needed to contain the leaf directory.  Throws an
+   intermediate-level directories needed to contain the leaf directory.  Raises an
    :exc:`error` exception if the leaf directory already exists or cannot be
    created.  The default *mode* is ``0777`` (octal).  On some systems, *mode* is
@@ -1037 +1262 @@
    given in the ``pathconf_names`` dictionary.  For configuration variables not
    included in that mapping, passing an integer for *name* is also accepted.
-   Availability: Unix.
 
    If *name* is a string and is not known, :exc:`ValueError` is raised.  If a
@@ -1043 +1267 @@
    included in ``pathconf_names``, an :exc:`OSError` is raised with
    :const:`errno.EINVAL` for the error number.
+
+   Availability: Unix.
 
 
@@ -1073 +1299 @@
    remove a file that is in use causes an exception to be raised; on Unix, the
    directory entry is removed but the storage allocated to the file is not made
-   available until the original file is no longer in use. Availability: Unix,
-   Windows.
+   available until the original file is no longer in use.
+
+   Availability: Unix, Windows.
 
 
@@ -1102 +1329 @@
    Windows, if *dst* already exists, :exc:`OSError` will be raised even if it is a
    file; there may be no way to implement an atomic rename when *dst* names an
-   existing file. Availability: Unix, Windows.
+   existing file.
+
+   Availability: Unix, Windows.
 
 
@@ -1124 +1353 @@
    Remove (delete) the directory *path*.  Only works when the directory is
    empty, otherwise, :exc:`OSError` is raised.  In order to remove whole
-   directory trees, :func:`shutil.rmtree` can be used.  Availability: Unix,
-   Windows.
+   directory trees, :func:`shutil.rmtree` can be used.
+
+   Availability: Unix, Windows.
 
 
 .. function:: stat(path)
 
-   Perform a :cfunc:`stat` system call on the given path.  The return value is an
-   object whose attributes correspond to the members of the :ctype:`stat`
-   structure, namely: :attr:`st_mode` (protection bits), :attr:`st_ino` (inode
-   number), :attr:`st_dev` (device), :attr:`st_nlink` (number of hard links),
-   :attr:`st_uid` (user id of owner), :attr:`st_gid` (group id of owner),
-   :attr:`st_size` (size of file, in bytes), :attr:`st_atime` (time of most recent
-   access), :attr:`st_mtime` (time of most recent content modification),
-   :attr:`st_ctime` (platform dependent; time of most recent metadata change on
-   Unix, or the time of creation on Windows)::
-
-      >>> import os
-      >>> statinfo = os.stat('somefile.txt')
-      >>> statinfo
-      (33188, 422511L, 769L, 1, 1032, 100, 926L, 1105022698,1105022732, 1105022732)
-      >>> statinfo.st_size
-      926L
-      >>>
+   Perform the equivalent of a :c:func:`stat` system call on the given path.
+   (This function follows symlinks; to stat a symlink use :func:`lstat`.)
+
+   The return value is an object whose attributes correspond to the members
+   of the :c:type:`stat` structure, namely:
+
+   * :attr:`st_mode` - protection bits,
+   * :attr:`st_ino` - inode number,
+   * :attr:`st_dev` - device,
+   * :attr:`st_nlink` - number of hard links,
+   * :attr:`st_uid` - user id of owner,
+   * :attr:`st_gid` - group id of owner,
+   * :attr:`st_size` - size of file, in bytes,
+   * :attr:`st_atime` - time of most recent access,
+   * :attr:`st_mtime` - time of most recent content modification,
+   * :attr:`st_ctime` - platform dependent; time of most recent metadata change on
+     Unix, or the time of creation on Windows)
 
    .. versionchanged:: 2.3
@@ -1155 +1385 @@
 
    On some Unix systems (such as Linux), the following attributes may also be
-   available: :attr:`st_blocks` (number of blocks allocated for file),
-   :attr:`st_blksize` (filesystem blocksize), :attr:`st_rdev` (type of device if an
-   inode device). :attr:`st_flags` (user defined flags for file).
+   available:
+
+   * :attr:`st_blocks` - number of 512-byte blocks allocated for file
+   * :attr:`st_blksize` - filesystem blocksize for efficient file system I/O
+   * :attr:`st_rdev` - type of device if an inode device
+   * :attr:`st_flags` - user defined flags for file
 
    On other Unix systems (such as FreeBSD), the following attributes may be
-   available (but may be only filled out if root tries to use them): :attr:`st_gen`
-   (file generation number), :attr:`st_birthtime` (time of file creation).
+   available (but may be only filled out if root tries to use them):
+
+   * :attr:`st_gen` - file generation number
+   * :attr:`st_birthtime` - time of file creation
 
    On Mac OS systems, the following attributes may also be available:
-   :attr:`st_rsize`, :attr:`st_creator`, :attr:`st_type`.
-
-   On RISCOS systems, the following attributes are also available: :attr:`st_ftype`
-   (file type), :attr:`st_attrs` (attributes), :attr:`st_obtype` (object type).
-
-   .. index:: module: stat
-
-   For backward compatibility, the return value of :func:`stat` is also accessible
+
+   * :attr:`st_rsize`
+   * :attr:`st_creator`
+   * :attr:`st_type`
+
+   On RISCOS systems, the following attributes are also available:
+
+   * :attr:`st_ftype` (file type)
+   * :attr:`st_attrs` (attributes)
+   * :attr:`st_obtype` (object type).
+
+   .. note::
+
+      The exact meaning and resolution of the :attr:`st_atime`,
+      :attr:`st_mtime`, and :attr:`st_ctime` attributes depend on the operating
+      system and the file system. For example, on Windows systems using the FAT
+      or FAT32 file systems, :attr:`st_mtime` has 2-second resolution, and
+      :attr:`st_atime` has only 1-day resolution.  See your operating system
+      documentation for details.
+
+   For backward compatibility, the return value of :func:`~os.stat` is also accessible
    as a tuple of at least 10 integers giving the most important (and portable)
-   members of the :ctype:`stat` structure, in the order :attr:`st_mode`,
+   members of the :c:type:`stat` structure, in the order :attr:`st_mode`,
    :attr:`st_ino`, :attr:`st_dev`, :attr:`st_nlink`, :attr:`st_uid`,
    :attr:`st_gid`, :attr:`st_size`, :attr:`st_atime`, :attr:`st_mtime`,
    :attr:`st_ctime`. More items may be added at the end by some implementations.
+
+   .. index:: module: stat
+
    The standard module :mod:`stat` defines functions and constants that are useful
-   for extracting information from a :ctype:`stat` structure. (On Windows, some
+   for extracting information from a :c:type:`stat` structure. (On Windows, some
    items are filled with dummy values.)
 
-   .. note::
-
-      The exact meaning and resolution of the :attr:`st_atime`, :attr:`st_mtime`, and
-      :attr:`st_ctime` members depends on the operating system and the file system.
-      For example, on Windows systems using the FAT or FAT32 file systems,
-      :attr:`st_mtime` has 2-second resolution, and :attr:`st_atime` has only 1-day
-      resolution.  See your operating system documentation for details.
+   Example::
+
+      >>> import os
+      >>> statinfo = os.stat('somefile.txt')
+      >>> statinfo
+      (33188, 422511, 769, 1, 1032, 100, 926, 1105022698,1105022732, 1105022732)
+      >>> statinfo.st_size
+      926
 
    Availability: Unix, Windows.
@@ -1201 +1453 @@
 
    Determine whether :class:`stat_result` represents time stamps as float objects.
-   If *newvalue* is ``True``, future calls to :func:`stat` return floats, if it is
+   If *newvalue* is ``True``, future calls to :func:`~os.stat` return floats, if it is
    ``False``, future calls return ints. If *newvalue* is omitted, return the
    current setting.
@@ -1226 +1478 @@
 .. function:: statvfs(path)
 
-   Perform a :cfunc:`statvfs` system call on the given path.  The return value is
+   Perform a :c:func:`statvfs` system call on the given path.  The return value is
    an object whose attributes describe the filesystem on the given path, and
-   correspond to the members of the :ctype:`statvfs` structure, namely:
+   correspond to the members of the :c:type:`statvfs` structure, namely:
    :attr:`f_bsize`, :attr:`f_frsize`, :attr:`f_blocks`, :attr:`f_bfree`,
    :attr:`f_bavail`, :attr:`f_files`, :attr:`f_ffree`, :attr:`f_favail`,
-   :attr:`f_flag`, :attr:`f_namemax`. Availability: Unix.
+   :attr:`f_flag`, :attr:`f_namemax`.
 
    .. index:: module: statvfs
@@ -1238 +1490 @@
    values correspond to the attributes, in the order given above. The standard
    module :mod:`statvfs` defines constants that are useful for extracting
-   information from a :ctype:`statvfs` structure when accessing it as a sequence;
+   information from a :c:type:`statvfs` structure when accessing it as a sequence;
    this remains useful when writing code that needs to work with versions of Python
    that don't support accessing the fields as attributes.
 
+   Availability: Unix.
+
    .. versionchanged:: 2.2
       Added access to values as attributes of the returned object.
@@ -1248 +1502 @@
 .. function:: symlink(source, link_name)
 
-   Create a symbolic link pointing to *source* named *link_name*. Availability:
-   Unix.
+   Create a symbolic link pointing to *source* named *link_name*.
+
+   Availability: Unix.
 
 
@@ -1303 +1558 @@
    Remove (delete) the file *path*.  This is the same function as
    :func:`remove`; the :func:`unlink` name is its traditional Unix
-   name. Availability: Unix, Windows.
+   name.
+
+   Availability: Unix, Windows.
 
 
@@ -1316 +1573 @@
    the operating system implements directories as files (for example, Windows
    does not).  Note that the exact times you set here may not be returned by a
-   subsequent :func:`stat` call, depending on the resolution with which your
-   operating system records access and modification times; see :func:`stat`.
+   subsequent :func:`~os.stat` call, depending on the resolution with which your
+   operating system records access and modification times; see :func:`~os.stat`.
 
    .. versionchanged:: 2.0
@@ -1325 +1582 @@
 
 
-.. function:: walk(top[, topdown=True [, onerror=None[, followlinks=False]]])
+.. function:: walk(top, topdown=True, onerror=None, followlinks=False)
 
    .. index::
@@ -1358 +1615 @@
    generated before *dirpath* itself is generated.
 
-   By default errors from the :func:`listdir` call are ignored.  If optional
+   By default, errors from the :func:`listdir` call are ignored.  If optional
    argument *onerror* is specified, it should be a function; it will be called with
    one argument, an :exc:`OSError` instance.  It can report the error to continue
@@ -1420 +1677 @@
 These functions may be used to create and manage processes.
 
-The various :func:`exec\*` functions take a list of arguments for the new
+The various :func:`exec\* <execl>` functions take a list of arguments for the new
 program loaded into the process.  In each case, the first of these arguments is
 passed to the new program as its own name rather than as an argument a user may
 have typed on a command line.  For the C programmer, this is the ``argv[0]``
-passed to a program's :cfunc:`main`.  For example, ``os.execv('/bin/echo',
+passed to a program's :c:func:`main`.  For example, ``os.execv('/bin/echo',
 ['foo', 'bar'])`` will only print ``bar`` on standard output; ``foo`` will seem
 to be ignored.
@@ -1433 +1690 @@
    Generate a :const:`SIGABRT` signal to the current process.  On Unix, the default
    behavior is to produce a core dump; on Windows, the process immediately returns
-   an exit code of ``3``.  Be aware that programs which use :func:`signal.signal`
-   to register a handler for :const:`SIGABRT` will behave differently.
+   an exit code of ``3``.  Be aware that calling this function will not call the
+   Python signal handler registered for :const:`SIGABRT` with
+   :func:`signal.signal`.
+
    Availability: Unix, Windows.
 
@@ -1456 +1715 @@
    on these open files, you should flush them using
    :func:`sys.stdout.flush` or :func:`os.fsync` before calling an
-   :func:`exec\*` function.
-
-   The "l" and "v" variants of the :func:`exec\*` functions differ in how
+   :func:`exec\* <execl>` function.
+
+   The "l" and "v" variants of the :func:`exec\* <execl>` functions differ in how
    command-line arguments are passed.  The "l" variants are perhaps the easiest
    to work with if the number of parameters is fixed when the code is written; the
@@ -1470 +1729 @@
    :func:`execlpe`, :func:`execvp`, and :func:`execvpe`) will use the
    :envvar:`PATH` environment variable to locate the program *file*.  When the
-   environment is being replaced (using one of the :func:`exec\*e` variants,
+   environment is being replaced (using one of the :func:`exec\*e <execl>` variants,
    discussed in the next paragraph), the new environment is used as the source of
    the :envvar:`PATH` variable. The other variants, :func:`execl`, :func:`execle`,
@@ -1489 +1748 @@
 .. function:: _exit(n)
 
-   Exit to the system with status *n*, without calling cleanup handlers, flushing
-   stdio buffers, etc. Availability: Unix, Windows.
+   Exit the process with status *n*, without calling cleanup handlers, flushing
+   stdio buffers, etc.
+
+   Availability: Unix, Windows.
 
    .. note::
 
-      The standard way to exit is ``sys.exit(n)``. :func:`_exit` should normally only
-      be used in the child process after a :func:`fork`.
+      The standard way to exit is ``sys.exit(n)``.  :func:`_exit` should
+      normally only be used in the child process after a :func:`fork`.
 
 The following exit codes are defined and can be used with :func:`_exit`,
@@ -1510 +1771 @@
 .. data:: EX_OK
 
-   Exit code that means no error occurred. Availability: Unix.
+   Exit code that means no error occurred.
+
+   Availability: Unix.
 
    .. versionadded:: 2.3
@@ -1518 +1781 @@
 
    Exit code that means the command was used incorrectly, such as when the wrong
-   number of arguments are given. Availability: Unix.
+   number of arguments are given.
+
+   Availability: Unix.
 
    .. versionadded:: 2.3
@@ -1525 +1790 @@
 .. data:: EX_DATAERR
 
-   Exit code that means the input data was incorrect. Availability: Unix.
+   Exit code that means the input data was incorrect.
+
+   Availability: Unix.
 
    .. versionadded:: 2.3
@@ -1533 +1800 @@
 
    Exit code that means an input file did not exist or was not readable.
+
    Availability: Unix.
 
@@ -1540 +1808 @@
 .. data:: EX_NOUSER
 
-   Exit code that means a specified user did not exist. Availability: Unix.
+   Exit code that means a specified user did not exist.
+
+   Availability: Unix.
 
    .. versionadded:: 2.3
@@ -1547 +1817 @@
 .. data:: EX_NOHOST
 
-   Exit code that means a specified host did not exist. Availability: Unix.
+   Exit code that means a specified host did not exist.
+
+   Availability: Unix.
 
    .. versionadded:: 2.3
@@ -1554 +1826 @@
 .. data:: EX_UNAVAILABLE
 
-   Exit code that means that a required service is unavailable. Availability:
-   Unix.
+   Exit code that means that a required service is unavailable.
+
+   Availability: Unix.
 
    .. versionadded:: 2.3
@@ -1562 +1835 @@
 .. data:: EX_SOFTWARE
 
-   Exit code that means an internal software error was detected. Availability:
-   Unix.
+   Exit code that means an internal software error was detected.
+
+   Availability: Unix.
 
    .. versionadded:: 2.3
@@ -1571 +1845 @@
 
    Exit code that means an operating system error was detected, such as the
-   inability to fork or create a pipe. Availability: Unix.
+   inability to fork or create a pipe.
+
+   Availability: Unix.
 
    .. versionadded:: 2.3
@@ -1579 +1855 @@
 
    Exit code that means some system file did not exist, could not be opened, or had
-   some other kind of error. Availability: Unix.
+   some other kind of error.
+
+   Availability: Unix.
 
    .. versionadded:: 2.3
@@ -1587 +1865 @@
 
    Exit code that means a user specified output file could not be created.
+
    Availability: Unix.
 
@@ -1595 +1874 @@
 
    Exit code that means that an error occurred while doing I/O on some file.
+
    Availability: Unix.
 
@@ -1604 +1884 @@
    Exit code that means a temporary failure occurred.  This indicates something
    that may not really be an error, such as a network connection that couldn't be
-   made during a retryable operation. Availability: Unix.
+   made during a retryable operation.
+
+   Availability: Unix.
 
    .. versionadded:: 2.3
@@ -1612 +1894 @@
 
    Exit code that means that a protocol exchange was illegal, invalid, or not
-   understood. Availability: Unix.
+   understood.
+
+   Availability: Unix.
 
    .. versionadded:: 2.3
@@ -1620 +1904 @@
 
    Exit code that means that there were insufficient permissions to perform the
-   operation (but not intended for file system problems). Availability: Unix.
+   operation (but not intended for file system problems).
+
+   Availability: Unix.
 
    .. versionadded:: 2.3
@@ -1628 +1914 @@
 
    Exit code that means that some kind of configuration error occurred.
+
    Availability: Unix.
 
@@ -1635 +1922 @@
 .. data:: EX_NOTFOUND
 
-   Exit code that means something like "an entry was not found". Availability:
-   Unix.
+   Exit code that means something like "an entry was not found".
+
+   Availability: Unix.
 
    .. versionadded:: 2.3
@@ -1659 +1947 @@
    master end of the pseudo-terminal.  For a more portable approach, use the
    :mod:`pty` module.  If an error occurs :exc:`OSError` is raised.
+
    Availability: some flavors of Unix.
 
@@ -1670 +1959 @@
    Send signal *sig* to the process *pid*.  Constants for the specific signals
    available on the host platform are defined in the :mod:`signal` module.
-   Availability: Unix.
+
+   Windows: The :data:`signal.CTRL_C_EVENT` and
+   :data:`signal.CTRL_BREAK_EVENT` signals are special signals which can
+   only be sent to console processes which share a common console window,
+   e.g., some subprocesses. Any other value for *sig* will cause the process
+   to be unconditionally killed by the TerminateProcess API, and the exit code
+   will be set to *sig*. The Windows version of :func:`kill` additionally takes
+   process handles to be killed.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 2.7 Windows support
 
 
@@ -1679 +1977 @@
       single: process; signalling
 
-   Send the signal *sig* to the process group *pgid*. Availability: Unix.
+   Send the signal *sig* to the process group *pgid*.
+
+   Availability: Unix.
 
    .. versionadded:: 2.3
@@ -1687 +1987 @@
 
    Add *increment* to the process's "niceness".  Return the new niceness.
+
    Availability: Unix.
 
@@ -1693 +1994 @@
 
    Lock program segments into memory.  The value of *op* (defined in
-   ``<sys/lock.h>``) determines which segments are locked. Availability: Unix.
+   ``<sys/lock.h>``) determines which segments are locked.
+
+   Availability: Unix.
 
 
@@ -1728 +2031 @@
    be used with the :func:`waitpid` function.
 
-   The "l" and "v" variants of the :func:`spawn\*` functions differ in how
+   The "l" and "v" variants of the :func:`spawn\* <spawnl>` functions differ in how
    command-line arguments are passed.  The "l" variants are perhaps the easiest
    to work with if the number of parameters is fixed when the code is written; the
@@ -1740 +2043 @@
    :func:`spawnlpe`, :func:`spawnvp`, and :func:`spawnvpe`) will use the
    :envvar:`PATH` environment variable to locate the program *file*.  When the
-   environment is being replaced (using one of the :func:`spawn\*e` variants,
+   environment is being replaced (using one of the :func:`spawn\*e <spawnl>` variants,
    discussed in the next paragraph), the new environment is used as the source of
    the :envvar:`PATH` variable.  The other variants, :func:`spawnl`,
@@ -1766 +2069 @@
 
    Availability: Unix, Windows.  :func:`spawnlp`, :func:`spawnlpe`, :func:`spawnvp`
-   and :func:`spawnvpe` are not available on Windows.
+   and :func:`spawnvpe` are not available on Windows.  :func:`spawnle` and
+   :func:`spawnve` are not thread-safe on Windows; we advise you to use the
+   :mod:`subprocess` module instead.
 
    .. versionadded:: 1.6
@@ -1774 +2079 @@
           P_NOWAITO
 
-   Possible values for the *mode* parameter to the :func:`spawn\*` family of
+   Possible values for the *mode* parameter to the :func:`spawn\* <spawnl>` family of
    functions.  If either of these values is given, the :func:`spawn\*` functions
    will return as soon as the new process has been created, with the process id as
-   the return value. Availability: Unix, Windows.
+   the return value.
+
+   Availability: Unix, Windows.
 
    .. versionadded:: 1.6
@@ -1784 +2091 @@
 .. data:: P_WAIT
 
-   Possible value for the *mode* parameter to the :func:`spawn\*` family of
+   Possible value for the *mode* parameter to the :func:`spawn\* <spawnl>` family of
    functions.  If this is given as *mode*, the :func:`spawn\*` functions will not
    return until the new process has run to completion and will return the exit code
    of the process the run is successful, or ``-signal`` if a signal kills the
-   process. Availability: Unix, Windows.
+   process.
+
+   Availability: Unix, Windows.
 
    .. versionadded:: 1.6
@@ -1796 +2105 @@
           P_OVERLAY
 
-   Possible values for the *mode* parameter to the :func:`spawn\*` family of
+   Possible values for the *mode* parameter to the :func:`spawn\* <spawnl>` family of
    functions.  These are less portable than those listed above. :const:`P_DETACH`
    is similar to :const:`P_NOWAIT`, but the new process is detached from the
    console of the calling process. If :const:`P_OVERLAY` is used, the current
    process will be replaced; the :func:`spawn\*` function will not return.
+
    Availability: Windows.
 
@@ -1824 +2134 @@
    the application's exit status.  The *path* parameter is relative to the current
    directory.  If you want to use an absolute path, make sure the first character
-   is not a slash (``'/'``); the underlying Win32 :cfunc:`ShellExecute` function
+   is not a slash (``'/'``); the underlying Win32 :c:func:`ShellExecute` function
    doesn't work if it is.  Use the :func:`os.path.normpath` function to ensure that
-   the path is properly encoded for Win32. Availability: Windows.
+   the path is properly encoded for Win32.
+
+   Availability: Windows.
 
    .. versionadded:: 2.0
@@ -1837 +2149 @@
 
    Execute the command (a string) in a subshell.  This is implemented by calling
-   the Standard C function :cfunc:`system`, and has the same limitations.
+   the Standard C function :c:func:`system`, and has the same limitations.
    Changes to :data:`sys.stdin`, etc. are not reflected in the environment of the
    executed command.
@@ -1843 +2155 @@
    On Unix, the return value is the exit status of the process encoded in the
    format specified for :func:`wait`.  Note that POSIX does not specify the meaning
-   of the return value of the C :cfunc:`system` function, so the return value of
+   of the return value of the C :c:func:`system` function, so the return value of
    the Python function is system-dependent.
 
@@ -1853 +2165 @@
    documentation.
 
-   Availability: Unix, Windows.
-
    The :mod:`subprocess` module provides more powerful facilities for spawning new
    processes and retrieving their results; using that module is preferable to using
-   this function.  Use the :mod:`subprocess` module.  Check especially the
-   :ref:`subprocess-replacements` section.
+   this function.  See the
+   :ref:`subprocess-replacements` section in the :mod:`subprocess` documentation
+   for some helpful recipes.
+
+   Availability: Unix, Windows.
 
 
 .. function:: times()
 
-   Return a 5-tuple of floating point numbers indicating accumulated (processor or
-   other) times, in seconds.  The items are: user time, system time, children's
-   user time, children's system time, and elapsed real time since a fixed point in
-   the past, in that order.  See the Unix manual page :manpage:`times(2)` or the
-   corresponding Windows Platform API documentation. Availability: Unix,
-   Windows.  On Windows, only the first two items are filled, the others are zero.
+   Return a 5-tuple of floating point numbers indicating accumulated (processor
+   or other) times, in seconds.  The items are: user time, system time,
+   children's user time, children's system time, and elapsed real time since a
+   fixed point in the past, in that order.  See the Unix manual page
+   :manpage:`times(2)` or the corresponding Windows Platform API documentation.
+   On Windows, only the first two items are filled, the others are zero.
+
+   Availability: Unix, Windows
 
 
@@ -1877 +2192 @@
    that killed the process, and whose high byte is the exit status (if the signal
    number is zero); the high bit of the low byte is set if a core file was
-   produced. Availability: Unix.
+   produced.
+
+   Availability: Unix.
 
 
@@ -1904 +2221 @@
    equal to ``0`` has no special meaning on Windows, and raises an exception. The
    value of integer *options* has no effect. *pid* can refer to any process whose
-   id is known, not necessarily a child process. The :func:`spawn` functions called
-   with :const:`P_NOWAIT` return suitable process handles.
-
-
-.. function:: wait3([options])
+   id is known, not necessarily a child process. The :func:`spawn\* <spawnl>`
+   functions called with :const:`P_NOWAIT` return suitable process handles.
+
+
+.. function:: wait3(options)
 
    Similar to :func:`waitpid`, except no process id argument is given and a
    3-element tuple containing the child's process id, exit status indication, and
    resource usage information is returned.  Refer to :mod:`resource`.\
-   :func:`getrusage` for details on resource usage information.  The option
-   argument is the same as that provided to :func:`waitpid` and :func:`wait4`.
+   :func:`~resource.getrusage` for details on resource usage information.  The
+   option argument is the same as that provided to :func:`waitpid` and
+   :func:`wait4`.
+
    Availability: Unix.
 
@@ -1924 +2243 @@
    Similar to :func:`waitpid`, except a 3-element tuple, containing the child's
    process id, exit status indication, and resource usage information is returned.
-   Refer to :mod:`resource`.\ :func:`getrusage` for details on resource usage
-   information.  The arguments to :func:`wait4` are the same as those provided to
-   :func:`waitpid`. Availability: Unix.
+   Refer to :mod:`resource`.\ :func:`~resource.getrusage` for details on
+   resource usage information.  The arguments to :func:`wait4` are the same as
+   those provided to :func:`waitpid`.
+
+   Availability: Unix.
 
    .. versionadded:: 2.5
@@ -1935 +2256 @@
    The option for :func:`waitpid` to return immediately if no child process status
    is available immediately. The function returns ``(0, 0)`` in this case.
+
    Availability: Unix.
 
@@ -1941 +2263 @@
 
    This option causes child processes to be reported if they have been continued
-   from a job control stop since their status was last reported. Availability: Some
-   Unix systems.
+   from a job control stop since their status was last reported.
+
+   Availability: Some Unix systems.
 
    .. versionadded:: 2.3
@@ -1950 +2273 @@
 
    This option causes child processes to be reported if they have been stopped but
-   their current state has not been reported since they were stopped. Availability:
-   Unix.
+   their current state has not been reported since they were stopped.
+
+   Availability: Unix.
 
    .. versionadded:: 2.3
@@ -1963 +2287 @@
 
    Return ``True`` if a core dump was generated for the process, otherwise
-   return ``False``. Availability: Unix.
+   return ``False``.
+
+   Availability: Unix.
 
    .. versionadded:: 2.3
@@ -1971 +2297 @@
 
    Return ``True`` if the process has been continued from a job control stop,
-   otherwise return ``False``. Availability: Unix.
+   otherwise return ``False``.
+
+   Availability: Unix.
 
    .. versionadded:: 2.3
@@ -1979 +2307 @@
 
    Return ``True`` if the process has been stopped, otherwise return
-   ``False``. Availability: Unix.
+   ``False``.
+
+   Availability: Unix.
 
 
@@ -1985 +2315 @@
 
    Return ``True`` if the process exited due to a signal, otherwise return
-   ``False``. Availability: Unix.
+   ``False``.
+
+   Availability: Unix.
 
 
@@ -1991 +2323 @@
 
    Return ``True`` if the process exited using the :manpage:`exit(2)` system call,
-   otherwise return ``False``. Availability: Unix.
+   otherwise return ``False``.
+
+   Availability: Unix.
 
 
@@ -1998 +2332 @@
    If ``WIFEXITED(status)`` is true, return the integer parameter to the
    :manpage:`exit(2)` system call.  Otherwise, the return value is meaningless.
+
    Availability: Unix.
 
@@ -2003 +2338 @@
 .. function:: WSTOPSIG(status)
 
-   Return the signal which caused the process to stop. Availability: Unix.
+   Return the signal which caused the process to stop.
+
+   Availability: Unix.
 
 
 .. function:: WTERMSIG(status)
 
-   Return the signal which caused the process to exit. Availability: Unix.
+   Return the signal which caused the process to exit.
+
+   Availability: Unix.
 
 
@@ -2025 +2364 @@
    The names known to the host operating system are given as the keys of the
    ``confstr_names`` dictionary.  For configuration variables not included in that
-   mapping, passing an integer for *name* is also accepted. Availability:
-   Unix.
+   mapping, passing an integer for *name* is also accepted.
 
    If the configuration value specified by *name* isn't defined, ``None`` is
@@ -2036 +2374 @@
    :const:`errno.EINVAL` for the error number.
 
+   Availability: Unix
+
 
 .. data:: confstr_names
@@ -2041 +2381 @@
    Dictionary mapping names accepted by :func:`confstr` to the integer values
    defined for those names by the host operating system. This can be used to
-   determine the set of names known to the system. Availability: Unix.
+   determine the set of names known to the system.
+
+   Availability: Unix.
 
 
@@ -2048 +2390 @@
    Return the number of processes in the system run queue averaged over the last
    1, 5, and 15 minutes or raises :exc:`OSError` if the load average was
-   unobtainable.  Availability: Unix.
+   unobtainable.
+
+   Availability: Unix.
 
    .. versionadded:: 2.3
@@ -2059 +2403 @@
    the *name* parameter for :func:`confstr` apply here as well; the dictionary that
    provides information on the known names is given by ``sysconf_names``.
+
    Availability: Unix.
 
@@ -2066 +2411 @@
    Dictionary mapping names accepted by :func:`sysconf` to the integer values
    defined for those names by the host operating system. This can be used to
-   determine the set of names known to the system. Availability: Unix.
+   determine the set of names known to the system.
+
+   Availability: Unix.
 
 The following data values are used to support path manipulation operations.  These
@@ -2122 +2469 @@
 .. data:: defpath
 
-   The default search path used by :func:`exec\*p\*` and :func:`spawn\*p\*` if the
-   environment doesn't have a ``'PATH'`` key. Also available via :mod:`os.path`.
+   The default search path used by :func:`exec\*p\* <execl>` and
+   :func:`spawn\*p\* <spawnl>` if the environment doesn't have a ``'PATH'``
+   key. Also available via :mod:`os.path`.
 
 
@@ -2137 +2485 @@
 .. data:: devnull
 
-   The file path of the null device. For example: ``'/dev/null'`` for POSIX.
-   Also available via :mod:`os.path`.
+   The file path of the null device. For example: ``'/dev/null'`` for
+   POSIX, ``'nul'`` for Windows.  Also available via :mod:`os.path`.
 
    .. versionadded:: 2.4
@@ -2156 +2504 @@
    returned data should be unpredictable enough for cryptographic applications,
    though its exact quality depends on the OS implementation.  On a UNIX-like
-   system this will query /dev/urandom, and on Windows it will use CryptGenRandom.
-   If a randomness source is not found, :exc:`NotImplementedError` will be raised.
+   system this will query ``/dev/urandom``, and on Windows it will use
+   ``CryptGenRandom()``.  If a randomness source is not found,
+   :exc:`NotImplementedError` will be raised.
+
+   For an easy-to-use interface to the random number generator
+   provided by your platform, please see :class:`random.SystemRandom`.
 
    .. versionadded:: 2.4
-