Bread of the Poilu, Part I

Bread of the Poilu, Part I: The Bread Ration

Poilu

  I have returned after a rather protracted absence while experiencing what we used to refer to in the Army as being "OBE" (Overcome By Events), a catchall phrase used to indicate being preoccupied by a simultaneous accumulation of issues which prevent one from fulfilling other missions.
I apologize for not responding yet to the many comments, and will answer them as quickly as possible.

  For those unfamiliar with the term, "poilu" (translation, "hairy one") was a slang term applied to French infantrymen of World War I, a reference to their unshaven (and often unkempt) appearance which was also considered to be rather manly and virile.

    But on to the bread: in the French army of World War I, as with most European armies of the time, bread was a critical part of the soldier’s daily rations whether in garrison or in the field. This is shown in the chart below. The daily bread ration of the French soldier throughout both world wars was 750 grams (~26.5 ounces).

Daily Bread Ration, 1914
Country	Bread		Hard Bread
	metric	US/English	metric	US/English
Austria-Hungary	700 or 840 grams*	24.5 or 29.5 ounces*	500 grams	17.5 ounces
France	750 grams	26.5 ounces	600 grams	21 ounces
Germany**	750 grams	26.5 ounces	500 grams	17.5 ounces
Great Britain	450 or 570 grams*	16 or 20 ounces*	450 grams	16 ounces
Italy**	700 grams	24.5 ounces
Russia	1024 grams***	36 ounces	717 grams	25.5 ounces

*Rations amounts varied, dependent on a number of factors such as type of unit and proximity to the front lines. **Same bread ration weight in WWII

***Originally measured in the Tsarist-era system of measures. The wartime bread ration was        2.5 "funt" (фунт). One funt=approx. 409.5 grams

  In the French Army, fresh bread was commonly in the form of pain ordinaire, literally “ordinary bread”, but perhaps more aptly translated as “standard bread”. Pain ordinaire was produced in round loaves of 1500 grams in weight:  two daily rations. It was a round, flattened loaf approximately 270 mm in diameter and 97 mm in height (approx. 10.5 x 4 inches). It had a somewhat tough crust, a dense crumb and fairly low moisture content which allowed it to remain edible (after 18 hours of "ressuage", or resting after baking to allow for venting of excess moisture) for up to five or six days in summer or eight days in winter, and to stand up to rough handling while in transport.

Pain ordinaire was normally made using a levain* (starter) for leavening. Using levain, rather than yeast, enhanced the bread’s ability to keep longer without going stale. And as a levain is made from supplies already on hand, flour and water, it obviates the need to use scarce transportation resources to keep the army bakeries supplied with yeast. Brewer’s yeast was authorized for use in extenuating circumstances, but only for a day until a starter from leftover dough could be produced. With the occupation of Belgium and the loss of much of their logistical support, pain ordinaire was supplied to the Belgian army. However, many Belgians disliked the somewhat tangy taste of French pain ordinaire made with levain, instead preferring the yeast-leavened version.

* Levain is the French term for a mixture of flour and water that has been colonized by yeasts and bacteria.

French soldiers carrying their dinner, soup and bread, 1915.
The bread is pain ordinaire or pain biscuité. 

gallica.bnf.fr / Biblioteque nationale de France

At Amiens (Somme) a pile of pain ordinaire on the ground, awaiting transport.

Pain biscuité (biscuit bread) was pain ordinaire prepared in a slightly different manner and baked longer to produce bread with lower moisture content in order to increase its keeping qualities to 20-25 days. Of approximately the same size and shape as pain ordinaire, pain biscuité had a slightly flatter shape, a thicker crust and weighed 1400 grams (~50 ounces) due to its lower moisture content. The daily bread ration for pain biscuité was 700 grams. As it was less susceptible to mold, pain biscuité made with brewer’s yeast and cooled for 24 hours could be stored for as long as 18 to 20 days, but was recommended to be used by the 10^th day.

Arrival of bread and tobacco rations by truck.

The round shape and thick crust of pain ordinaire made for a sturdy loaf that could endure being tossed about during the transportation process. The mission of the ration parties was one of the more dangerous of World War I, as soldiers would have to leave the relative (emphasis placed on "relative") safety of the front-line trenches.

Several methods to transport pain ordinaire to the front-line trenches were improvised.
One was to impale the loaves on a stick and carry between two soldiers, as illustrated above. 
Twine could also be passed through the center of the loaves to string several loaves together
for transport.

At Camp Coëtquidan (Brittany), German prisoners of war prepare pain ordinaire for transport.
Note the baisure (part of the loaf with no crust) on the sides of the loaves, resulting from the loaves being placed close to each other in the oven. While it does affect the keeping qualities by leaving an entry point for moisture, it does not affect taste or texture. Apparently these loaves were intended for immediate consumption.

A third type of bread was the French WWI version of hardtack, "pain de guerre" (war bread). It was a departure from the traditional type of hard bread or hard tack in that pain de guerre included leavening. While it didn't have the long-time storage capability of previous hard breads, it was more palatable and less likely to cause digestive problems.

There were many sources for bread in the French Army. Bread could be procured from civilian bakeries in time of extreme need, but was more commonly produced in permanent army bakeries, field ovens or in rolling ovens (“boulangeries roulantes”) that accompanied units in the field. 

Even while moving daily and under adverse conditions, field bakeries equipped with  boulangeries roulantes were expected to be able to produce an output of not less than six batches of bread in twenty-four hours, The production of a bakery unit of 32 boulangeries roulantes was rated at 26,880 rations (13,440 loaves) per day.

(above and below)
Testing field ovens (boulangeries roulantes), Argenteuil (suburb of Paris), 6 May, 1914.

Coming soon, how to make your own pain ordinaire (see photos below). 

I need to tweak the formula just one more time before unleashing it. 

Sources

L'Intendance en Campagne,

enri Charles-Lavauzelle, Éditeur militaire (Military publisher), Paris, 1914

No. 96bis, Instruction sur les Boulangeries Légères de Campagne

Henri Charles-Lavauzelle, Éditeur militaire (Military publisher), Paris, 1901

No. 96, Subsistances Militaires, Boulangeries Roulantes de Campagne

Henri Charles-Lavauzelle, Éditeur militaire (Military publisher), Paris, 1910

No. 96, Subsistances Militaires, Boulangeries Roulantes de Campagne

Henri Charles-Lavauzelle, Éditeur militaire (Military publisher), Paris, 1915

Cooking in the Trenches: Part 2, German Army 1915

I've been MIA for a bit, just a bit overwhelmed by everything going on at one time. But I have also been working on a number of projects which are coming to fruition, and will soon be published in this blog.
In this post we'll take a look at more recipes from the German trenches of WWI: rice, vegetables, sauces, and more potatoes. But first I thought it might be helpful for those unfamiliar with equipment of that era to give a brief overview of individual German mess gear in the First World War.

  The German Kochgeschirr M.1887 was rather massive for an individual mess kit. With a 2.5 liter capacity, it had nearly 1.5 times the volume of the later M.31 Kochgeschirr. Some M.1887s were still in use at the outbreak of the First World War.

Kochgeschirr M.1887

It was replaced by the Kochgeschirr M.1910 model, with a reduced capacity of 2 liters. An interesting development at that time was a folding spoon and fork eating utensil (the Essbesteck ,German for cutlery) and perhaps the first mass-produced spork. The M.1910 Kochgeschirr had a small metal lug on the inside the body to hold the Essbesteck neatly for transport (see illustration below). 

Kochgeschirr M.1910

Reichswehr soldiers in 1932 chowing down.
 This photo gives one a good idea of the size of the M.1910-type mess kit.  

Here are a few more recipes from Kochbuch für den Schützengraben (Cookbook for the Trenches). If you are striving for authenticity, when a recipe calls for bread crumbs it would normally have been a coarse 100% rye bread. 

Potatoes

As mentioned in an earlier post, the potato daily ration was 1,500 grams, which of course could vary greatly due to disruptions in the supply chain. As with most of the recipes in Kochbuch für den Schützengraben, no amounts were given for potato recipes. 

Mashed Potatoes

Force boiled potatoes through a sieve. Add a little milk and salt.

Mashed Potatoes (Baked)

Mix plenty of fat and grated cheese into mashed potatoes.

If eggs are available, separate the eggs and beat the egg whites until they form soft peaks.

Mix the egg yolks, fat and grated cheese into the warm mashed potatoes, then fold in the egg whites.

Sprinkle cheese and butter on top.

If baking in an oven, bake uncovered like a casserole in a 350°F/205°C oven.

If cooking on an open fire, use a heavy lidded container such as a Dutch oven. Cook over hot coals with more coals on top.

Cook until heated through and lightly browned on top.

Instead of the cheese add sugar to taste to about half a pound of potatoes per serving.

Add fruit sauce, apple sauce, stewed fruit or other cooked fruits.

Bake as for the baked mashed potatoes.

Mashed Potatoes (Croquettes)

Form cooled mashed potatoes in balls the size of an egg, roll in beaten egg then in bread crumbs. Fry in hot fat.

Apple Potatoes:

Peel and cut up or grate the potatoes.

Cooked until the potatoes are slightly undercooked.

Add an apple that has been peeled and cut into small pieces.

Add some fried bacon bits.

Cook until the apple and potatoes are soft.

Sauces

Sauces were an accompaniment to many of the recipes in Kochbuch für den Schützengraben. Roux was made with a tablespoon of butter or other fat, such as lard, oil, or bacon grease. The fat was heated until melted, a spoonful of flour added, mixed into a smooth paste, and then the other ingredients were added to it. If flour was not available, a handful of crumbled bread was substituted.

  

Béchamel Sauce:

Ingredients

fat

sliced ​​ham, pepper, onion.

broth or water

cream or milk.

bread crumbs

salt (if needed)

grated cheese, if available.

Procedure

Chop the ham, peppers and onion into small pieces.

Heat the fat and add the sliced ​​ham, pepper and onion.

Cook over low to medium heat until softened.

Add a little broth or water and cream or milk.

Add bread crumbs, salt (if needed), and a little grated cheese, if available.

Tomato Sauce

Ingredients

fresh tomatoes

butter or water

Procedure

Cut up the tomatoes into large pieces.

Place tomatoes in a pan with a little butter or water.

Cook over low to medium heat,

Once the tomatoes have softened, force them through a sieve to remove the seeds and skin.

Boil the tomatoes (stirring constantly) until they have thickened into a paste.

To the cooked tomato paste add a little water or broth, butter and bread crumbs.

This tomato paste (or canned tomato paste) is excellent with eggs, beef, mutton, meatballs, or the like. It also makes a very tasty addition to rice, pasta or macaroni.

Tomato soup can be made by adding broth to the tomato paste.

  

Mustard sauce:

Ingredients

butter or other fat

meat stock (use fish broth if serving sauce with fish)

2-3 tbsp mustard

bread crumbs

egg yolk

Procedure

Bring the stock or broth to a boil.

Remove from heat and add a little bit at a time to the egg yolk while stirring (to temper the egg yolk and prevent it from curdling).

Place butter, stock, mustard and bread crumbs in the pan.

Over low heat, bring the sauce to a simmer while stirring constantly.

Remove from heat, allow sauce to cool slightly; add the egg yolk while stirring vigorously.

Optional: add a little sugar and vinegar, to taste.

Rice

     The rice recipes are scaled for one portion. According to WWI German Army daily ration tables, 125 grams or rice or 250 grams of pulses (peas, beans, or lentils) could be substituted for 1500 grams of potatoes. Buckwheat, oat groats, or other grains can be used in the same way as rice in any of the following recipes.

Risotto

     Of course this is not the “proper” method of cooking risotto, but classic risotto made with Arborio rice could hardly have been expected to be prepared in a trench under combat conditions. Any type of rice may be used, but preferably it should be a short-grained, starchy variety. You will need to use a sufficient amount of meat stock so that the cooked rice is a bit more wet and sticky than steamed rice.

US                               Metric              Ingredients

4.4 oz/5 fl oz               125 g/150 ml      short-grained rice

10-12 fl oz                   300-360 ml        meat stock (amount depends on the type of rice)

to taste                        to taste               grated cheese

to taste                        to taste               salt

Optional

½ fl oz/1 tbsp              15 ml               tomato paste

to taste                        to taste            meat scraps, chicken liver or mushrooms (canned or                                                                  

                                                         cooked)

Procedure

Heat fat in a saucepan and add the dry rice.

Stir until the rice grains are coated with fat.

Add the meat broth, bring to a boil, lower heat and cook for twenty minutes.

When it is nearly cooked, add plenty of grated cheese.

At this point, also add the tomato paste, meat scraps, chicken liver or mushrooms.

Variations

Rice can also be baked in a covered pan that has been greased with butter or other fat, as in the potato dishes.

Apple Rice 

Ingredients

4.4 oz/5 fl oz               125 g/150 ml   rice

8-10 fl oz                     120-300 ml      meat stock (amount depends on the type of rice)

½ - 1 tbsp                    15-30 ml          butter

Procedure

Put the rice, water and butter in a covered pan.

Boil or steam the rice until soft, about 20-25 minutes.

While the rice is cooking, chop the apples into 3/8 inch (1 cm) pieces.

Add the chopped apples to the cooked rice.

Vegetables

Brassicas (cabbage, broccoli, cauliflower, Brussels sprouts) can be cooked until soft in boiling water, drained, and then simmered with a little meat broth or water, fat, and salt to taste.

Young green beans, peppers, cabbage, carrots, asparagus, chicory, Brussels sprouts, etc. can be cooked until soft with a little water and salt. Drain, serve, dot with pieces of butter.

Asparagus: serve with melted butter.

Chicory:  pour over with melted butter, sprinkle with grated cheese.

Spinach: bring one or two spoonfuls of water to boil, add the spinach and heat until boiling. Remove from heat and add a little butter or anchovy paste.

Kale: boil, drain, then chop up and cook in a little fat until soft.

Red or white cabbage: Cut into thin strips. Bring a little water to a boil and steam the cabbage until soft. Add a little fat and some finely chopped apples. Cook until the apples are soft.

Cauliflower: boil until soft and serve with Hollandaise sauce.

Beets (all varieties): boil until soft, broth with fat and bread crumbs made ​​creamy.

Dried peas, beans, and lentils: boil until tender. Add tangy sweet bacon gravy (refer to my earlier post for the recipe).

Sources
Kochbuch für den Schützengraben, Hans Werder, Otto Janke Publisher, Berlin, 1915

http://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kentt%C3%A4keittoastia
http://www.ir63.org/index.php?page=33
http://www.wehrmachtlexikon.de/heer/waffen/ausruestung/allgemeine/essbesteck.php

Cooking in the Trenches, German Army, 1915

Kochbuch für den Schützengraben

(Cookbook for the Trenches)

     Kochbuch für den Schützengraben (Cookbook for the Trenches) was a booklet of recipes published in 1915, before the worst of the wartime food shortages began to be felt in the front lines. Food shortages in Germany increased as World War I slogged on, reaching crisis level by the end of the war. The British naval blockade and the non-availability of Russian exports eventually reduced the importation of food, fertilizer and animal feed to a fraction of their prewar levels. Agricultural production suffered as a result of forty percent of German male farm laborers being taken away by the war effort. The situation was further exacerbated by the potato crop failure of 1916, when potato production dropped to less than half that of 1915. This forced the cultivation of yellow turnips and the resultant “yellow turnip winter” of 1916-1917, when potatoes were in extremely short supply or simply unobtainable in many German cities.

     Although the war was in its early stages, some ingredients in Kochbuch für den Schützengraben were listed as optional; it was noted that they might not always be available. But eggs, meat, dairy products, and sugar were still obtainable, at least in theory. It was a time when soldiers could still enjoy, at least occasionally, meat cutlets, potato pancakes and thick sauces.

     Most of the recipes were quite rudimentary: they often did not include the amounts of ingredients and gave only very basic cooking directions. Some recipes need no further embellishment, and one should feel free to use whatever amount of ingredients are available, or whatever seems an appropriate serving size. In other recipes I have estimated the ingredient amounts based on daily rations, sound cooking techniques and the proportions used in similar recipes of the time. The recipes are scaled for one serving. This post will take a look at the basics: meat and potatoes.

   

Cutlets

     The German soldier’s daily meat ration at the beginning of the war was 375 grams of fresh meat or 200 grams of smoked meat or sausage. The meat recipes are scaled to 200 grams of meat, which is approximately half of the daily meat ration.

Pork, Mutton or Veal Cutlets 

US                   Metric             Ingredients

7 oz                 200 g               pork loin, mutton, or veal (preferably loin)

1 each              1 each             egg

2 fl oz/¼ cup   60 ml                grated bread or bread crumbs

1 tbsp              1 tbsp              butter

Procedure

1.      Cut the meat into finger-thick slices (about ¾ inch or 2 cm thick).

2.      Flatten the meat and well beaten to about 1/4 to 3/8 inch thickness (1 cm).

3.      If a meat mallet is not available, a heavy object may be substituted: skillet, wine bottle, beer stein, etc.*

4.      Sprinkle with salt

5.      Roll in beaten egg, then in grated bread.

6.      Add to browned butter or other fat in a pan on a good fire and fry for two minutes on each side. To serve, top with butter sauce.

(*Cooking tip: To determine the amount of force needed to flatten the meat, lightly hit the heel of one hand with a meat mallet or other object held in the other hand. It should not be painful. This is the amount of pressure you need to apply to the meat. Any more force than that will tear the meat or turn it into mush.)

Wiener Schnitzel 

US                   Metric             Ingredients

7 oz                 200 g               veal

to taste            to taste             salt

1 tbsp              15 ml               butter

Procedure

1.      Wiener schnitzel was cut from the leg of veal. Pieces of any size may be used.

2.      Flatten veal slices to about 1/4 inch thickness (0.6 cm).

3.      Rub with salt, then fry in hot butter.

4.      Serve with slices of lemon, anchovies, or Pfeffergurken (“pepper gherkins”: small cucumbers pickled in vinegar with chili peppers and other spices), or whatever is available.

Beefsteak: 

US                   Metric              Ingredients

7 oz                 200 g               beef loin

Procedure is the same as for Wienerschnitzel.

Chopped Beefsteaks (Gehackte Beefsteaks)

US                   Metric              Ingredients

7 oz                 200 g               beef , finely chopped

1-2 tbsp*         15-30 ml*        fat (lard, butter, cooking oil)

to taste             to taste             salt

Procedure

1.      Mix the meat with salt and pepper.

2.      Add the additional 1 tbsp fat to the meat only if the beef is very lean.

3.      Shape into round, flat dumplings.

4.      Heat 1 tbsp fat in a frying pan. Fry the steaks for a few minutes (3-5 minutes) on each side.

Meat Patty (Buletten)

“Buletten” to Berliners, these pan-fried ground meat patties are known elsewhere in Germany as Frikadellen, Frikandellen, Fleischpflanzerl, etc.

US                   Metric             Ingredients

7 oz                 200 g               boiled or roasted meat

4 fl oz               120 ml             bread crumbs

1 each              1 each             egg yolk

1 tbsp              15 ml               fat (lard, butter, cooking oil)

to taste             to taste            salt

to taste             to taste            pepper

Procedure

1.      Mince the cooked meat and combine with breadcrumbs, fat, egg yolks, salt and pepper.

2.      Mix well, shape into 6 balls and flatten slightly.

3.      Heat the fat in a frying pan and fry for about 2-3 minutes on each side, until well browned.

Potato Dishes

     Potatoes were an important part of the German soldier’s ration. Early in the war, the daily allowance was 1500 grams (53 ounces) of potatoes. While this may seem like a huge amount, it is only approximately 1200 calories: about 1/3 of a soldier’s daily requirement. I have scaled the potato recipes to 375 grams (about 13 ounces). This is the weight of raw, unpeeled potatoes. 

Fried Potatoes

Peel the potatoes, cut into slices about 3/8” (1 cm) thick. Fry in hot fat until browned. Sprinkle with salt. You can also add thinly sliced apples or onions in the middle of cooking.

Potato Pancakes

One large russet potato works well for this recipe and yields about 5-6 small potato pancakes.

US                   Metric              Ingredients

13 oz               375 g                potatoes (any type)

1 each              1 each              egg yolk

2-4 tbsp           30-60 ml          flour

 to taste            to taste              salt

1-2 tbsp           15-30               fat, for frying

Procedure

1.      Peel and grate the potatoes.

2.      Mix with egg yolk, salt and flour.

3.      Heat the oil in a frying pan with a cover.

4.      Take a rounded tablespoon of the mixture and place it in the heated pan.

5.      Flatten the potato mixture with the back of the spoon into a small circular fritter.

6.      Cover the pan and cook for about 4-5 minutes on each side, until lightly browned.

7.      Remove from heat,

Variations

Sprinkle with sugar and serve with stewed fruit.

Serve with a bacon sauce made from fried bacon bits, a few tablespoonfuls of broth, a little vinegar and sugar to taste.

Meat Sauce for Potatoes

I scaled this recipe large enough to suffice as the meat ration for a meal. These are only guidelines, and the amount of ingredients can vary according to taste and to what’s available.

US                   Metric            Ingredients

8 fl oz              250 ml             leftover ham, salt pork, or any type of roasted meat, chopped

1/2 tbsp           15 ml               fat

4 fl oz              120 ml             meat broth (add more broth if the meat is dry)

1 tbsp              15 ml               cream

2 fl oz              60 ml               bread crumbs

1-2 tbsp           1-2 tbsp          grated Parmesan or Swiss cheese

Procedure

1.      Chop the meat into small pieces.

2.      Heat the fat in a pan.

3.      Add the meat

4.      Once the meat has been warmed, add the broth, cream, bread crumbs and cheese.

5.      Serve over boiled and sliced potatoes or cooked dehydrated potatoes.

6.      Alternately, place the potatoes in an oven-proof pan, cover with the sauce, then dot with small pieces of butter and grated cheese. Cover the pan and cook in a field oven or on a fire with hot coals placed on top of the lid. Bake until ingredients are heated through, and the cheese has melted.

Potato Salad:

US                   Metric              Ingredients

13 oz               375 g               boiled potatoes

Procedure

Cut the cooked, cooled potatoes, into slices 3/8 inch (1 cm) thick.

Mix with one of the following salad dressings.

These dressings may be mixed with leftover (cooked) fish to make fish salad.

(Note: in the original booklet, the following recipes for salad dressings had neither names nor amounts.  I have added descriptive English names only for the sake of convenience. The addition of salt was added for those recipes where it was not included, but assumed to be an ingredient. And although not noted in the original recipe, the sour cream dressing is greatly enhanced by the addition of chopped fresh herbs such as parsley and/or chives)

Lard and Vinegar Dressing

US                   Metric              Ingredients

1-2 tbsp           15-30 ml          lard

1-2 tbsp           15-30 ml          hot meat broth (fish broth if dressing is used for fish)

1½  tsp            8 ml                 vinegar

to taste            to taste              salt

to taste            to taste              pepper

Procedure

Stir the lard together with the broth, add the remaining ingredients and mix well.

Optional

Add 1 tbsp minced onion

Add a pinch of ground laurel (bay leaf)

Oil and Vinegar Dressing

US                   Metric              Ingredients

2 tbsp             30 ml                 oil

2 tsp                10 ml                vinegar

½ tsp              ½ tsp                 sugar

to taste            to taste              salt

Mustard Dressing

US                   Metric              Ingredients

2 tbsp             30 ml               oil

2 tsp                10 ml               vinegar

2 tsp                10 ml               mustard

2 tsp                10 ml               white wine

to taste            to taste              salt

Sour Cream Dressing

US                   Metric              Ingredients

2 tbsp             30 ml               sour cream,

1 tbsp             15 ml               vinegar

½ tsp               ½ tsp               sugar

 to taste            to taste              salt

Sources

Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, Volumes 91-94

A.L. Hummel, 1920, pg.132

Germany’s Food Supply, Prof. W.J. Ashley, London:  Jas. Truscott & Son, Ltd, 1916.

Reprinted from The Quarterly Review, October, 1915

Germany, Propaganda and Total War, 1914-1918: The Sins of Omission, David Welch

Rutgers University Press, 2000, pg.119

Kriegskochbuch, Anweisungen zur einfachen und billigen Ernährung. 5. Auflage.

(War Cookbook, Instructions for Simple and Cheap Food. 5th Edition.)

Gebrüder Hoesch (pub.), Hamburg, 1915 

Kochbuch für den Schützengraben, Hans Werder, Otto Janke Publisher, Berlin, 1915

The Scientific American War Book, The Mechanism and Technique of Warfare, Albert A. Hopkins (Editor), New York, 1916