Meteor System Series

SOVIET APPLICATION OF SPACE TO

THE ECONOMY

By Lani Hummel Raleigh*

1971-1975

III. Meteorological Satellites

Weather reporting by satellite was another of the early uses of satellites identified by the Russians, although an operational system was not developed until a much later date. Global weather photos are important for a variety of reasons. First, weather is a total system involving interactions in the atmosphere of the whole planet. Hence, world-wide reporting of phenomena with frequent updating s is important to any forecasting other than immediate forecasting in a particular location. Second, weather distant from the home territory of a country such as the Soviet Union is important to operations of commercial and military aircraft, to the merchant and naval fleets on the seas, and to fishing interests. Former methods never gave adequate or timely coverage because reporting stations were too few and communications were too slow. Satellites have the capacity to provide data needed to remedy these previous shortcomings.

A. EARLY EXPERIMENTS

An earlier section of this study has listed the types of missions assigned to Kosmos satellites, with several of those missions at least indirectly pointed toward development of meteorological satellites. These references included various kinds of solar studies, ionospheric studies, magnetic studies, and studies of the distribution of cloud cover.

1. Kosmos 14 and 23

These two satellites of April 13, 1963 and December 13, 1963 were originally described as conducting miscellaneous geophysical studies. Years later, they were specifically identified as the test beds of electro-technical systems to guarantee the orientation and stabilization of weather satellites, and as a means for testing power supplies using solar cell batteries. (24) The results of these tests were incorporated in Kosmos 122 and subsequent payloads of that series.

2. Kosmos 45, 65, and 92

These three flights were essentially a part of the military observation recoverable payload series, but it was revealed later that they carried supplemental experiments to aid in the development of weather satellites. They were launched September 13, 1964 , April 17, 1965 , and October 16, 1965 respectively. Each measured the energy distribution in the Earth's thermal radiation with diffraction-scanning spectrophotometers, and semiconductor bolometers as infrared sensors. Photometric determinations of the cloud cover were made along with measurements of scattered solar ultraviolet radiation. These results, too, were employed in developing Kosmos 122 and subsequent flights of that series.

3. Kosmos 44, 58, 100, and 118

These four flights have never been described as to mission by the Russians, but they flew so nearly the orbit of Kosmos 122 that it must be presumed that they were precursors to the weather satellite series. Either they were to test the basic hardware alone, or they also carried weather cameras for TV and infrared detection, which failed to function. These flights were launched on August 28, 1964 , February 26, 1965 , December 17, 1965 , and May 11, 1966 . All four were in circular orbits approximately 640 kilometers in altitude.

B. THE ANNOUNCED WEATHER SATELLITES OF THE KOSMOS SERIES

1. Kosmos 122

Kosmos 122 was launched on June 25, 1966 , though without an announced specific mission at the time. The Soviet Union and the United States already had an agreement to exchange pictures gathered by weather satellite over the so-called Cold Line between Moscow and Suitland, Maryland . For some months, no satellite data were transmitted over the line because reciprocity was the rule and there were no Soviet pictures forthcoming to match those of the U.S. TIROS series.

However, after some months during which the Russians apparently experimented with this payload, they finally acknowledged that it was a weather satellite.25 For a few weeks, then, pictures on a selective basis were transmitted to the United States over the Cold Line with reciprocity on the part of this country. The pictures received in the United States by cable were not of good quality, and they arrived too late for real-time use in weather prediction. Part of the trouble lay in the inadequacy of the cable link, but slow Soviet processing in Moscow also seems to have been a factor. The pictures ceased coming after a few weeks, strongly suggesting that the payload instrumentation had had only a short life.26 This flight was the last one of its series flown from Tyuratam with an A-l vehicle at a 65 degree inclination.

Although Kosmos 122 was not very successful as a long-term-use operational device, it pioneered some important techniques in weather reporting, more nearly matching in concept the complex U.S. Nimbus series rather than the smaller and simpler original U.S. TIROS type.

(a) Instrumentation.—Kosmos 122 carried instruments for a television survey of the cloud cover, other cameras for the infrared survey of clouds both by day and night, and further instruments for measuring the radiation of the Earth's atmosphere. The instrumentation of Kosmos 122 made use of the 8-12 micron window of transparency for its day and night scanning of infrared. Ordinary television was used for daytime cloud cover pictures, and for measuring limits of ice fields in the absence of clouds. The downward intensity of radiation was measured in three bands. Measurements in the 0.3 to 3 micron range (visible light and lower infrared) made it possible to measure the intensity of reflected radiation, about 70-80 percent from clouds, most of the rest from oceans. Studies in the 8-12 micron band made it possible to estimate the temperature of the Earth or of clouds visible from the satellite. Measurements in the 3 to 30 micron range made it possible to measure the total flux of heat energy from the Earth and from the atmosphere into space. Data from the satellite were processed through a computer on Earth with appropriate allowance for the position of the satellite to derive radiation intensity maps of the Earth. It was made clear that Kosmos 122 was still experimental and reported data for only parts of its total orbit. (27)

(b) Payload Appearance.—When pictures of Kosmos 122 were released, it was revealed to be a fairly large cylinder, perhaps 1.5 meters in diameter and 5 meters long, and extending from opposite sides were two large solar panels of three segments each. It was three-axis stabilized with fly wheels driven by electric motors; it could tilt the panels to collect the maximum amount of solar energy, and it was pointed vertically toward the Earth in order to have its cameras properly aligned. A long arm carried a steerable high-gain parabolic antenna to return data to Earth. A more complete description will be given shortly, as it is apparent that the later operational system uses essentially the same design.

2. Kosmos 144.

This was the first launch of a weather satellite from Plesetsk, and came on February 28, 1967 . With this launch the Russians began placing the satellites of this configuration in circular 650 kilometer orbits at an inclination of 81 degrees, using the A-l vehicle. (Today these satellites are placed in an even higher orbit 900 kilometers above the Earth.) Kosmos 144 represents an improvement over Kosmos 122 in that the solar cell arrays are even larger, arranged on four folding panels to a side instead of three. The more extreme inclination of the orbit to the Equator comes closer to giving global coverage than did the 65 degree inclination flights from Tyuratam.

A series of important scientific problems having great significance in the field of space engineering were solved as a result of the development of meteorological satellites. Experience with the continuous operation of Kosmos 144 among others proved that it was possible for solar batteries to operate in a stable manner for long periods of time in outer space under sharply changing temperatures causing thermal "shocks". These "shocks" are experienced when spacecraft pass into shadows and depart from them. (28) . In a number of respects, Kosmos 144 was an advance over its predecessor which had operated only a few months, Soviet Union with no operating satellite of this type until Kosmos 144 appeared. The newer satellite operated continuously instead of intermittently. The television system was described as having a solution of several kilometers, for purposes of defining cloud formations. It still left unsolved a Soviet goal of investigating the vertical temperature, profile of the atmosphere and other unspecified tasks.

Kosmos 144 was specifically described as equipped with two television cameras an infrared sensor, .a radiation sensor, and magnetometer. Its picture revealed essentially the same structure as Kosmos 122: a main cylindrical body, with a Sun-sensor at the upper end On opposite sides were the large four-segment panels covered with solar cells for power supply. At the bottom was a complex smaller cylinder containing the two downward pointing television cameras control devices, the radio antennas, the sensors for infrared, magnetic data and actinometric data. Television camera solution was described as three times that of the ESSA satellites orbited by the-United States. The television cameras switched on automatically any time the Sun was more than five degrees above the horizon. Because Earth illumination varied so much, automatic sensors adjusted the camera apertures to produce high-quality photographs under varied lighting conditions. The picture width of the area covered by each sweep of the satellite was 1,000 kilometers on the surface of the Earth The infrared equipment performed a scanning motion perpendicular to the flight plane of the satellite, covering a belt 1100 kilometers in width. The heat radiation detected was converted electronically into signals proportional to the intensity of the radiated flux and recorded for later playback. In addition to the several scanning instruments, two other wide angle cameras covered the entire disk of the Earth visible from the satellite. On completion of each 96-minute orbit, the entire load of data was dumped to a receiving and processing station in the Soviet Union , clearing the tapes for storing of fresh data from the next orbit. (29)

Kosmos 144 remained in operation for more than a year. (30)

3. Kosmos 156

This satellite was launched on April 27, 1967 , and seems to have been a close repeat of the still functioning Kosmos 144, but so timed and phased as to extend the coverage of weather reporting over more hours of the day when operating with its predecessor.

4. Kosmos 184.

This satellite was launched on October 24, 1967 , possibly because of a deterioration in the quality or even failure of data from Kosmos 156. It had the same characteristics as the others of this group.

5. Kosmos 206

Launched on March 14, 1968 , it represented a further continuation of the same series, and may have reflected deterioration in data from Kosmos 184.

6. Kosmos 226

This was the last Kosmos named satellite specifically identified close to the time of launch as an operational weather satellite, and was in the, same series as its predecessors. Collectively, all of them were referred to as the experimental phase of the Meteor System.

C. THE METEOR SYSTEM OF WEATHER REPORTING

In April of 1967, the Congress of the "World Meteorological Organization met in Geneva , Switzerland . Over 300 scientists from 129 countries discussed a world weather service. Although the meeting coincided with the flights of Kosmos 144 and Kosmos 156, the Russians waited two months before revealing the operational status of their new "Meteor" system of weather reporting. (31)

Even this delayed announcement of the operational Meteor system was later qualified to be referred to as interim in nature. Satellite instrumentation descriptions, although generally compatible, vary slightly from year to year. Thus, when further details of the satellites were supplied in the papers prepared for the 1968 Vienna meetings on peaceful uses of outer space, the television camera resolution was described as 1200 meters, and the two television cameras were described as each covering a path 1000 kilometers wide, with slightly overlapping fields. The control stabilization system was termed unique. As previously mentioned, stability was maintained by flywheels driven by electric motors. The kinetic energy of these flywheels was dampened by using electromagnets on board the spacecraft interacting with the magnetic field of Earth. (This has also been used in some U.S. spacecraft (32)

The Meteor System includes: (1) artificial Earth satellites, (2) stations for reception and processing data, and (3) service for the control and operation of the on-board systems and their regulation.

D. THE FULLY OPERATIONAL METEOR SATELLITES

The Russians tested individual components of weather satellites in the Kosmos program with a variety of payloads and orbits, culminating in Kosmos 122. The third state of the program involved the interim introduction of the Meteor system with the referenced flights from Kosmos 144 through 226, all launched at Plesetsk.

Yet the U.S.S.R. did not signal the completely operational status of the Meteor system until 1969 when it began naming certain satellites Meteor, without further designation by number. (Westerners, for convenience, add numbers to the Meteor name.)

1. The launch Program of the Weather-related Satellites

The Table 5-2 which follows is a summary of the main sequences of similar payloads:

Meteor 1 was announced a day after launch as a weather satellite and given a description indistinguishable from its Kosmos predecessors. The speedy identification of its mission was notable. It was described as reporting on cloudiness, snow and ice cover, both day and night, and on radiation by the Earth and atmosphere. (33)

2. Operation of the Meteor System

Meteor satellites were described as having a strip 1,000 kilometers wide within their observation range, while their sensors of radiation and heat emission cover a territory of 2,500 kilometers. (34) Later the Russians announced that the vision band in the modified meteorological satellites had been increased by approximately 50 percent. (35)

The data are recorded and stored for release by radio link when the satellites are over Soviet territory. In addition, some satellites now carry automatic picture transmission (APT) equipment making available real time pictures anywhere within receiving range (see below) there are three receiving centers for satellite weather information: Moscow, Novosibirsk, and Khabarovsk. Individual satellite pictures are fitted together to create a large photo montage of the area under study, these pictures are then relayed by photo telegram to Soviet and foreign weather services.(36) According to the Russians, the satellite data are not only used by the Soviet Hydrometeorological Service, but are also instantly relayed to the World Meteorological Service. (37)

Since the early days of the Meteor program there have been a variety of modifications in the Meteor payloads. The Meteor 1-10 satellite launched on December 29, 1971 was the first Meteor that. carried APT equipment which is compatible with U.S. APT ground receivers The Meteor 1-10 was also used to test ion-plasma electrojet engines which use solar energy to create thrust by means of plasma accelerated in electromagnetic fields. The Russians announced that these orbital correction engines were developed to guarantee stabilizing capability for flights of long duration. (38) Also, for the first time, using the orbital correcting engines with the stabilizing plasma engines, it was possible to change the orbital altitude of the satellite by 16.9 kilometers The higher orbit allowed improved scanning of the Earth's surface and increased the accuracy of the geographic tie-in. (39)

The Meteor 1-8 satellite which was launched on April 17, 1971 contained spectrometric apparatus for determining the vertical temperature profile of the atmosphere to an altitude of approximately 35 kilometers. With this instrument it became possible for the Russians to measure the radiation spectrum of a "column" of air in the infrared range of electromagnetic waves and to determine a vertical cross section of temperature.

The Meteor 2 satellite which was launched on July 11, 1975 represents another change in the Meteor system. According to the Russians the satellite has improved on-board equipment: an experimental optical-mechanical television scanning apparatus operating in the visible part of the spectrum for obtaining images of cloud cover and the underlying surface; an experimental optical-mechanical television scanning apparatus operating in the infrared portion of the spectrum; and, a complex of radiometric apparatus intended for continuous observations of streams of penetrating radiation in near-Earth space. In addition to the scientific apparatus, the satellite carries a precision electromechanical triaxial system which provides orientation of the satellite toward the Earth, an electrical supply system with independent solar aiming and tracking for the solar cells, a radio-telemetry system for transmitting to Earth data on the operation of the satellite service systems, a radio system for precise measurement of orbital parameters, and a radio complex for transmitting scientific information to Earth. (40)

The Russians continuously stress the benefits derived from weather satellites. Meteorological satellites provide information on clouds, ice cover, and atmospheric radiation. They permit the study of weather fronts and jet stream currents. One article describes the assistance provided by the Meteor satellites during the towing of an unwieldy floating dry-dock from Klaypeda around the Cape of Good Hope to Vladivostok. The typhoon Juliette threatened to sink the heavily listing dry-dock, but weather reports from space gave information on the center of the storm and its direction of movement so that a new course could be chosen which saved the dry-dock and its tugs. (41)

Warnings to populated places of approaching tropical storms have saved many lives. Accurate satellite weather reports have resulted in economic sayings as well. The ability to choose optimal routes has meant a sailing time savings of 5 to 7 percent for oceangoing ships. (42) It was estimated that the use of satellite information by the Soviet maritime fleet alone provides an annual saving of over one million rubles. (43) Civil air transports have also benefited from more accurate and timely weather data, particularly information on cloud cover.

The period of navigation along the Arctic route has been considerably extended with the assistance of satellite data on polar ice conditions. The Russians recently published an ice map of the Antarctic in the Moscow journal Zemlya i Vselenaya (The Earth and the Universe). The map was drawn as a result of an experiment in which the ice boundaries were determined simultaneously by information from two satellites employing two different methods of data collection: a satellite in the Kosmos series measuring the thermal radio-frequency radiation of the Earth in the microwave band, and a Meteor satellite scanning the Earth with a television camera. The two maps compared favorably. However, the Russians concluded that data obtained from measuring the Earth's radiation enjoyed certain advantages. The Earth's atmosphere is virtually transparent to radio waves: neither clouds nor precipitation can block radio waves. (44)

3. Future of Meteorological Satellites

The awarding of the Lenin Prize for 1970 in the field of science and technology for work on the Meteor system is indicative of the importance the Russians attach to the meteorological satellites, which represent a considerable improvement over Earth-based weather reporting techniques. In a single revolution around the Earth a Meteor satellite collects the amount of data which would require from 15,000 to 20,000 Earth-based weather stations. The Meteor satellites transmit as much data over a period of twenty-four hours as is gathered by all the Earth-based meteorological stations on the planet m 6 months.

Discussions of the future of the Soviet weather observation system include plans for creating a single international network for ocean observations by automatic buoys. Information from the buoys would be collected by radio by satellites. (46)

Also under consideration are the possibilities of creating an international global system of geostationary meteorological satellites which would be placed in synchronous orbit at 36,000 kilometers over the equator. A system of five such satellites could scan a zone along the equator from 50 ° North to 50 ° South latitude. The geostationary satellites would be used in combination with low orbiting satellites. (47)

Among future scenarios for Soviet weather reporting is a three-tier system. The orbital altitudes for the three tiers range from several hundreds to 36 thousand kilometers. In the first tier of the weather reporting system there would be long-term orbital manned stations which would make visual observations of geological and meteorological phenomena such as tides, landslides, dust and sand storms, tsunami, hurricanes, and earthquakes. In the second tier Meteor satellites would circle the Earth in polar or near-polar orbits at an altitude of 1,000-1 500 kilometers. Finally, the third tier would contain meteorological satellites at an altitude of up to 36,000 kilometers for continuous observation of the dynamic processes in the Earth's atmosphere such as overall air mass circulation. (48)

E. SOVIET WEATHER ROCKETS

Like many other nations, the Soviet Union also has vertical rocket probe launch facilities for weather reporting purposes. Although the reports are localized, they provide a rapid response and a more complete vertical profile than do satellites. Of particular interest is the rocket sounding station operated by the U.S.S.R. in Antarctica, the world's "weather kitchen". This station is linked by radio with the main meteorological station in Moscow.

F. OTHER WEATHEE-KELATED FLIGHTS

Meteorological data were gathered by other experimental satellites outside the main series of flights related to the Meteor series and their precursors. The chief of these are described in the commentary to follow.

 1. Molniya 1-3 and Molniya 1-4

At least two and perhaps more of the Molniya 1 communications satellites already discussed have carried a television camera in addition to their communications relaying equipment. One of the first revelations came when it was reported that Molniya 1-3 from a height of about 40,000 kilometers had photographed almost a hemisphere of Earth, showing that 80 percent of the visible part of the Northern Hemisphere was cloud-covered. A succession of such pictures during the course of a day was expected to make it possible to trace the formation and movement of cyclones, hurricanes, and other formations important to weather prediction. This was to supplement data from regular weather satellites at much lower altitude. The first picture was taken May 18, 1966. (49)

Further details of the system came with the launch of Molniya 1-4 in October, 1966. The television camera system was steerable from Earth, and included both wide angle and narrow angle lenses, together with various filters, so that several kinds of observations could

be made through remote controls from Earth. The purpose, again, was to trace synoptic processes transpiring over large regions of the Northern Hemisphere. (50)

2. Kosmos 149 and 320

Kosmos 149, launched on March 21, 1967 has already been mentioned as a small satellite launched from Kapustin Yar with a B-l launch vehicle. It represented the first attempt to stabilize a spacecraft through aerodynamic forces while still in orbit. Four rods attached a ring-shaped conic section to the main body of the satellite, and after attaining orbit, the rods were telescoped to extend the ring to a position well back from the main body of the satellite where the very thin upper atmosphere between 240 and 300 kilometers above the Earth stabilized the craft as to pitch and yaw. A two-stage gyro gave stability as to roll. Gas jets were used to achieve the initial stabilization after separation from the carrier rocket, and thereafter no other active devices were required, such as gas jets, reaction wheels, orientation sensors, or other attitude controls.

The satellite had two multi-channel photometers to scan the Earth in two mutually perpendicular directions, to determine Earth brightness in a narrow region of the spectrum including the molecular absorption band of the visible region. Another instrument was a radiation meter in the 8 to 12 micron visibility window to measure the radiation temperature to an accuracy of 1 degree Centigrade. The TV system on board measured escaping radiation only in narrow regions of the spectrum in contrast to the wide spectrum coverage of the TV system used in Kosmos 122 and 144. The data returned to Earth concerned the temperature regime of Earth's surface and clouds along with quantitative characteristics of the brightness of Earth as seen from space. The payload decayed in 17 days.

Kosmos 320 had the same characteristics of orbit, and remained in orbit for 25 days. Similar results were obtained from the second flight.

3. Kosmos 843

This satellite has already been described as a regular military observation satellite, recovered after 11 days in orbit. But it also carried a supplemental scientific payload, designed to explore some of the areas of shortcoming of conventional weather satellites. The Meteor satellites are unable to penetrate thick cloud cover. Consequently, for the first time, experiments were carried to study thermal radiation of the Earth from the atmosphere and surface in the 8 mm to 8 cm wavelengths. The sensors were oriented toward Earth, constituting an automatic radio astronomical observatory in space. There was also a narrow-band infrared receiver.

Among the possible measures from such studies are the water drop content of clouds, and the foci of precipitation previously obscured by cloud cover. Further, measuring the water vapor resonance attenuation of these wavebands against corresponding wavebands permits the determination of the humidity of air. Also, the satellite was able to measure solid ice limits in Antarctica despite cloud cover, and to give a profile of Pacific Ocean surface water temperatures from the Bering Sea to Antarctica. (51)

References:

(A) SOVIET SPACE PROGRAMS, 1971-75, OVERVIEW, FACILITIES AND HARDWARE MANNED AND UNMANNED FLIGHT PROGRAMS, BIOASTRONAUTICS CIVIL AND MILITARY APPLICATIONS PROJECTIONS OF FUTURE PLANS, STAFF REPORT , THE COMMITTEE ON AERONAUTICAL AND SPACE .SCIENCES, UNITED STATES SENATE, BY THE SCIENCE POLICY RESEARCH DIVISION CONGRESSIONAL RESEARCH SERVICE, THE LIBRARY OF CONGRESS, VOLUME – I, AUGUST 30, 1976, GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE, WASHINGTON : 1976.

24. Trud, Moscow , January 24, 1968 , p. 4.

25. Izvestiya, Moscow , August 19, 1966 , p. 4.

26. This was confirmed as 4 months by Izvestiya, Moscow , March 17, 1967 , p. 5.

27. Izvestiya, Moscow , August 21, 1966 , p. 5.

28. Andronov, M, Space Meteorology, Pravda, Moscow , October 26, 1967 , p. 3.

29. Izvestiya, Moscow , March 17, 1967 ; Aviatsiya i Kosmonavtike No. 9, 1967, pp. 3O-35;

and Pravda, Moscow , March 9, 1968.

30. Perry, G. E., The Cosmos Programme, Flight International, London , September 4, 1969 ,

pp. 359-6.

31. TASS, Moscow , June 1, 1967 ,1525 GMT

32. See Space Exploration and Applications, issued by the United Nations, covering the meetings of August 14-27, 1968 at Vienna Austria A/ CONF. 34/2. Vol. 1. in the original language of the participants, The papers were made available in mimeograph form as early as the previous April.

33. TASS, Moscow, March 27, 1969, 1625 GMT.

34. Pravda, Moscow, August 7, 1970, p. 6.

35. TASS, Moscow, March 4, 1972, 1340 GMT.

36. Pravda, Moscow, August 7, 1970. p. 6.

37. TASS, Moscow, April 29, 1970, 1315 GMT; TASS, Moscow, April 30, 1970, 0813 GMT.

38. Andronov, I., The Meteors Are on Watch, Pravda, Moscow, May 25, 1972. p. 3.

39. Artslmovlch, L. A., et. al.. Development of a Stationary Plasma Engine (SPE) and Its

Testing; on the Meteor Artificial Earth Satellite, Moscow, Kosmicheskiye Issledovaniya, vol. XII, No. 3, 1974, pp. 451-568.

40. "Meteor-2 In Flight, ” Pravda, Moscow, July 13, 1975, p. 3.

41. Sovetskiy Voln, Moscow, No. 13, July 1970, pp. 35-36

42. Anrtronov. I., Op. cit. p. 3.

43. TASS, Moscow, February 4, 1975, 1437 GMT

44. TASS, Moscow, December 25, 1974, 1425 GMT.

45. TASS, Moscow, Feb. 4, 1975, 1437 GMT. This is one of the facts from a new book entitled, Kosmos i Pogoda (Outer Space and Weather) Published in Leningrad, It is a photographic chronicle of Soviet space meteorology, and The Authors are designers of rockets and scientific equipment. They have accompanied their text with over 150 color photographs taken from Soviet spacecraft taken from Soviet spacecraft.

46. Vetlov, I., Celestial Patrol, Izvestiya, Moscow, May 1, 1975, p. 8.

47. Idem

48. TASS, Moscow, May 25, 1972, 0737 GMT.

49. Izvestiya, Moscow, May 20, 1966, p. 6.

50. Krasnaya Zvezda, Moscow, October 22, 1966, p. 1.

51. Pravda, Moscow, January 21, 1969, p. 3.

• Ms. Raleigh Is a physical sciences analyst In the Science Policy Research Division, Congressional Research Service, The Library of Congress.