“La Citta’
Ideale”
Generative
Codes Design Identity
Celestino Soddu,
Professor, Architect
Director of Generative Design Lab
Coordinator of EC program "Euro-China Exchange: Technology and Culture of
Generative Design Approach"
DiAP, Politecnico di Milano University
celestino.soddu@polimi.it - www.celestinosoddu.com
Abstract
The aim is:
how cities could fit the quality idea, the urban lifestyle that is our welfare
dream?
But what
is our dream? A city that reflects, as in a mirror, our identity.
We know
very well what we want: beauty, harmony, naturality and safety. For gaining
them, we need to define "how" to satisfy these needs.
- We look for naturality,
but in the same time we love sophisticated answers to our needs. And
naturality that fits human needs is a result of high quality design and
management approach.
- We are looking for beauty
and harmony, but we are loosing these qualities, that we had in the past,
in these convulsed improving density cities that satisfies only
pre-defined and functionally optimized necessities
- But first of all we need clarity
and safety; and we discovered that also what appeared as impossible
and unthinkable catastrophe was happened. And Safety can be realized only
if each people can share a process of evolutionary conscience.
The complex structure of a city can be identified as
not-linear complex system, and we need a tool that can emulate and manage,
operating in real time, the transformation process of cities.
As all the
dynamic not-linear complex systems, every city has a proper attractor, a
specificity that countersigns it and that we can represent with a series of
specific codes of transformation, with a Generative Project. Like DNA in
nature, we can design the city’s identity
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Ideal
City, Piero Della Francesca atelier
1.
Ideal Cities
Ideal
city has always
been a fascinating matter.
The thought
of possible urban scenarios were always representations of cultural approaches.
These
researches and utopias have produced visionary scenarios that tried to
conjugate functional, aesthetical and symbolic aspects with those belonging to
a good government able to realize the aspirations of citizens.
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Lorenzetti, the good city government
The
ideal city is a concept of possible, not a defined form. An adaptive concept that is able
to fit the dynamics of the incoming transformations.
Ideal
Cities are ideas in progress, cultural approaches, tensions toward possible
existing cities, proposals that people can share giving his contribution that
mirrors his uniqueness, his own ideas, desires, traditions and aims. It is
ideal in how much it unites in a project an identifiable and characterized
physical and social organization.
The idea of
an ideal city is a philosophy, is a challenge, is how to look at future, how to
think the increasing quality process. And this process must fit and support
local culture and traditions.
Every
cultural identity has, as art expression, its ideal city. This possible city
represents the possible evolution of a particular existing city, traced
using codes belonging to local cultural reality, to genius loci, to a
recognizable urban identity expressed by its history. The ideal city of
Venetians is Venice in its future possible configuration in progress. The dream
is Venice incomparably much more Venice than before.
The idea of
a city is, therefore, a visionary representation of modes of changing the city
itself. When this idea is realized, the possible moves itself forward, looking
for a new possible.
More, some
cities are open cities. Who arrives feels so well as if he always lived in that
place. And these cities are really impressive for the fact that, despite their
inhabitants have different traditions and cultures, and different needs, the
city's identity remain however so recognizable and unique. And all different
people recognize themselves in this city.
2. How to look at future
The city must answer to the increasing requests and needs of
its inhabitants, but above all to the unpredictable subjective needs of each
individual, who "lives" the city following his own thoughts and
his own desires and his own conceptual paths.
The fields
of relevance of these requests are manifold:
- Contradictory requests
concerning artificial and natural ware;
- The needs concerning the
recognizability and the preservation of differences;
- The esthetical needs;
- The needs of security;
- The functional needs concerning
the adequacy, in real time, to the evolution of human life:
- The need to find in the cities
the patina of time that tells us we are alive because we had a past.
But all
these needs are not so easily classifiable in optimized data that are
legitimate for all people. Each of us is unique and unrepeatable, and our needs
are, above all, subjective needs. The city, to be livable, must know how to
respond to the unpredictable subjective requests of each of its citizens.
The city
must be adaptable to the multiplicity of subjectivities, but in the same time
must be recognizable, unique and, more, it must preserve its identity.
A precise
relationship exists among the subjectivity of needs, the city identity and
security of living there.
Everyone
needs to live in an environment that respects the uniqueness of its inhabitants.
This is possible only in a city in which identity, difference and oneness of
environment is saved too. A town environment homogenized by an approach
following only optimization standards contrasts to our subjective search of the
happiness, to the sense of our presence and existence. (Soddu, Colabella,
“recreating the city’s identity”, Freiburg 1995)
3. Generative Projects
Therefore
we can identify a possible approach to pursue the urban quality in even more
complex cities: not the construction of a static system, with previously
defined events, but the construction of a dynamic system and its logical
rules in which the initial paradigm, the conceptual structure of the city,
is a first step of a reference process able to support and carry the subsequent
dynamics toward the attainment of the quality.
The
urban quality is tending towards quality. Quality will be reached when the build events
represent our time of human beings in the history process.
The most
opportune operational approach to the future of quality, safety and harmony of
the cities is to manage the not-linear dynamic system that represents each city
with a Generative Project.
Manage,
re-design and design the town system. Generative urban design must define a
paradigm of management, in progress, of the increase of complexity and not a
plan proposing, in axiomatic way, forms and static orders.
This
design act, and the strong clarity that springs from it, is essential.
The
impressive matter is: identity, complexity and quality of cities can be designed.
We can create the identity of a city putting together a sequence of creative
acts, stratifying manifold different points of view, manifold concepts of city
belonging different fields of interest, and constructing something like an
artificial DNA performed like a table of transforming codes. These codes are
not only theoretic but operative devices too.
We can use
this artificial DNA to emulate evolutionary sequences of city’s life through
increasing complexity processes. Doing that we can generate new cities with
a strong identity belonging to this artificial historic life. But thought these
visionary scenarios we can, above all, identify and manage the existing cities
and their quality.
The
essential points of reference of generative projects are: identity, complexity, harmony, clarity and
safety.
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Generated
city. The identity belongs to the transforming rules used and to the
self-organizing paradigm that manages the process. The identity generative
code used in this town design is my interpretation of New York City Identity
through an operative generative meta-project |
4.
Identity
Cities are
extremely complex systems. Each city has and must have its own strong identity,
due to its own cultural tradition, strongly recognizable and loved from people
living it. If a city has not identity, it’s not a city; it’s only a built-up
area, a primordial broth without structure.
We can transform it into a city, if we identify a concept strongly
related to the environment and to its inhabitants. Our challenge in
globalization era is: a city equal
to an other city doesn't exist. Each one is unique and unrepeatable. We
have to work for that. This is the reason why it is not possible to look for
optimized solutions usable for all urban realities.
But, as
often happens, increasing complexity due to the increasing needs of
contemporary life can deteriorate this identity. And cities can loose their
identity. Contingent solutions owed
to specific needs and new functions can weaken this identity until loosing it.
It happens,
above all, if the city’s management forgets the harmony and the cultural
specific identity and operates transformations that are repetitions of
evolutions used in the other cities. The immediate functional objective can be
reached but this approach can damage the harmony and the clarity of the town
system.
Singapore.
Generated architectures with the aim to fit a particular town concept that
identifies Singapore.
But what
does the "identity" of a city means, and how is it possible to save
this identity from destruction, from the homologation of the image and from
the flatting of its performances?
We can follow two different paths
that come from different and contradictory presuppositions.
1. A way is to save the existing events by
freezing them, because we read the environment identity as belonging to a
particular static equilibrium. But this approach run the risk of
transforming each city into a museum and could not be an approach that
brings us far. At most we can apply
this approach to some exceptional existing events. The city, considered as a
structure which identity is static, doesn't evolve and die, totally losing its
real living identity.
2. The
other approach, even if it is more difficult to manage, sees the identity as
developing procedures. These procedures, sometimes consolidated by time,
act controlling the increase of complexity, and represent the culturally unique
and unrepeatable matrix of the site.
Like an
olive tree that, overworked from the wind and from the rain becomes more and
more an olive tree.
It enhances its own identity, while, if grown protected in a bell of glass
loses its own identity because it has not the occasion to explicate and
represent its character. Following the same way, each city explicates its own
identity living the perpetual shifts of cultural moments and unpredictable
events, living and using the occasions created by the increasing of complexity
of the life of the man, and of his needs, but also created by the chancing of
each subjective approach.
This way
is, however, much more complex than the first one, and more difficult.
After 11th
September, I thing that we must rebuild Ground zero with a strongly positive
image of our era because we believe in human progress and, as our fathers made
before, we must leave to our sons a Hope space and a Beauty place.
If we
choose this second dynamic approach, we certainly cannot identify the city’s
identity with a database of forms or solutions that reflect, in their
specificity, different historical and evolutionary moments. Identity is not
already savable through the repetition of facts and events. Identity is a modus
operandi toward the future.
We must
conceive something different from old planning tools: a generative code, an
evolutionary code that interprets, in the specificity of the contemporary
moment, the bringing forward an idea, going toward the increasing of identity
and recognizability of each city.
We could
identify as “clarity” the goal to be reached. Every new event that is
realized in a city, also in specificity, unpredictability and novelty that can
countersign it, it has to bring an increase of clarity.
Every new
realization must increase the identity of its city. The city must make a
footstep toward the attainment and improving of its unique city’s idea, that is
not necessarily tied up to specific forms, colors or recognizable events but to
a recognizable logic representing the cultural and ideal character of this
city.
Because
each city, to be livable, must have a recognizable idea. There is not a static
possibility: the identity can be or improved or loosed.
5. Clarity and Safety, the Livability
The
relationship between the citizen and their city is a relationship of mutual
clarity. Each people recognize his own city and, recognizing himself in this
city, works for increasing the livability of the environment in which he
lives.
Recognizing
the city in which lives, each people finds, mirrored, his own identity of
man.
Livability
is harmony, safety, feeling good, feeling to be at home and sharing a city
concept that reflects own history.
Clarity is,
above all, sharing the evolutionary process of conscience, knowing what
surround us and feeling it.
If we share
the cultural concept of our city as code, we feel home, and we perform, in
fractal way, all spaces following this code. From urban spaces to architectural
spaces until interiors.
The urban
scenarios emerging from these operational logics have, simultaneously, clarity
of image and structure, recognizability and harmony and, in the same time, they
fit the complexity of contemporary cities.
But this
not means that urban spaces are all equal. On the contrary.
They are
only like individuals of the same species. Every urban and architectural
space, unique and unrepeatable public - private events, will propose, in its
oneness, multiple variations of the identity of the same place. A city
inside the city, each one different but able to interpret and represent the
same urban idea.
Everybody
as part of the same living entity, as inside a historical district in which
life flows without interruption and all people know very well where they are,
also if they never visited this particular place before.
Identity
means that each inhabitant has a clear concept of his city, also if it is a
megalopolis. Because the complexity is understandable applying a fractal
logic.
Each
quarter, each place, each square is different and, perhaps, unpredictable for
the citizens. Because it was realized in different moments and with the support
of different designers. Each place may be unpredictable and fascinating for its
uniqueness but it will be not a surprise for inhabitant people. The place is
recognizable as belonging to the same city’s idea.
Each people
recognize each space, knows it and, discovering its unpredictable uniqueness,
unconsciously improve its quality and clarity. As happened in historical
ancient quarters. Or in natural environments where each people can valuate if
something can be a problem because he knows clearly the structure of nature and
he wonders looking at the multiplicity of uniqueness.
6.
Naturality
In other
terms, we can valuate incoming megalopolis as a new naturality. Where
complexity is not a character that brings difficulties but, as in nature, can
help the approach to identify and manage problems and new needs.
More, this
approach to complexity can, unpredictably, satisfy the need of naturality of
town’s inhabitants. All different events, but clearly recognizable, perform a
natural quality. Where artificial events are all different like in nature.
And, with their uniqueness could mirror the uniqueness of each human being that
lives the city.
Generative
approach performs these possibilities.
Using a
Generative Project, we can generate a sequence of different possible incoming
scenarios, and valuate them. In the meantime, we can verify and control the
structure of evolutionary process we have designed. All the results generated
by this project are different, really complex like natural sites and fitting
the complex needs of contemporary life.
These
results define, in the plurality (we could say the endless) of possible figured
scenarios, the identity concept of a city. Each generated town design is a
performed Ideal City because this generative project is not only a solution but
a way to look at future and to design the mailfold future possible evolution of
the city.
7.
Complexity
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Complexity and not complication. Complexity fit clarity and
quality. On the contrary complication fit confusion.
It is extremely difficult to define the complexity as static attribute of an event, of an environment. Complexity is not only the result but also the same structure of an evolutionary dynamics. It depends, essentially and entirely, from the "how" the system-object-project-environment-city that we are considering is evolved.
It is in fact impossible, and unthinkable, to directly produce complexity at once without activating and attending the evolution of a dynamic trial. A process of accumulation of following results and possible different points of view and, contemporarily, of progressive synthesis acts.
If, as
architects, we try to imagine ex-novo, and to extempore draw a city that has
the character of an environment with complex historical stratifications, we
will go toward to a sure failure and we would probably produce simplified
sketches.
In the past
Piranesi too, drawing visionary cities, used to stratify, in different times, a
plurality of possible histories, transforming the previous one in way to leave
traces and forms that progressively accumulate and evolve themselves. His
drawings are complex because they represent
traces of life too.
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Piranesi,
visionary complex environment
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Giotto, medieval city image
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Complexity
is ever connected to the dynamic path of transformation. It is born from this
process. To design and manage city’s complexity we must run its evolutionary
process. And Generative Design does it.
But if
dynamic trials of development are necessary to produce complexity, these are not
enough to reach complexity and not only complication. Something further is
needed.
A city
increase its complexity from the length of the lived time, but also, and above
all, from having crossed different historical and cultural moments, programs of
development conceptually different and contradictory, and from the ability of
simultaneously living these different points of view concerning its
development.
A
generative tool managing the increasing of complexity (and belonging
complexity, quality) must emulate two types of growth: the accumulation of
events and references (due to the trial), and the performing of clarity,
due to the growth of the ability of continuous self-organizing of the system in
front of what changes, also suddenly.
But not
only. Complexity also manifests itself with the ability to effort (we could
also say to react in front of) these events, satisfying incoming needs
unpredictable before. This ability is an attribute that we can identify and
define as self-organizing power of the system. Managing the changes in progress
to maintain entire, rather to increase, town identity, quality and
characterization. (Soddu, Colabella, “Il progetto ambientale di morfogenesi”,
environmental design of morphogenesis, Esculapio Publisher, 1992)
Generative
approach produces projects able to emulate self-organizing processes and to
design complexity.
8. Case Studies
One of first case studies that I realized was the generative project of Italian medieval towns Identity. (C.Soddu, Citta’ Aleatorie, Masson publigher, 1989 Milan, Italy)
The urban
image painted by the Italian masters of ‘300 and ‘400, have been one of the
occasions for my experimentation. Looking at these images I have tried to
represent, through algorithms, design logic and an urban evolutionary logic.
The aim was to understand, identify and represent the “urban and architectural
character” of this city's concept.
For the characteristics of the
research and of the tool that I had in mind and I was setting, this was a theme
that has not been developed looking in preference at the philological and
historical references, but operating only through harmony's stimuli that some
pictorial images of medieval time are still able to give to me as a
contemporary designer and architect.
To do that, and to find a
composition reference with the more univocal possible identity, I observed a
whole series of images of urban spaces and architectures represented by Giotto
and Simone Martini
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Simone
Martini, cities scenarios |
The operational choice has not,
however, the setting up of a library, an abacus of elements to be composed,
because this approach would have been able only to furnish “predictable”
images, therefore far from the complexity of possible urban systems and urban
shapes that I was looking for.
The aim has been, above all, the representation of a conceptual dynamics, of logics through which such elements (at the various scales) can be produced. And the representation, in parallel, of the temporal dynamics of construction of the urban shape.
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Generated scenarios of medieval
Italian towns (1989)
Each generative devices, separately,
acts on different aspects of the same element. They are activated by the
simultaneous presence of different logics.
Artificial Life emulation is used and the generative project is
structured in way to produce also absolutely unpredictable elements. But such
elements, generated using the formal logic rules identified to fit the medieval
town identity, are strongly recognizable as “medieval”. The three-dimensional
models generated with this project have the
“patina of time”. They belong to recognizable spatial orders, scenarios
that seem to be produced by a temporal run, by a common “history”.
Unpredictability comes from the
different time of starting up the artificial design life, not from using random
factors inside the code. Generative codes are strongly identified transforming
rules and the aim is reaching different results but belonging to the same identifiable
architectural concept and town idea.
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Two
scenarios of Rome’s “Borghetto Flaminio”. The increasing complexity sequence
using medieval and baroc transforming codes
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Another
case study was Rome. The historical center of Rome is certainly one of
the more complex city environments. Its complexity is directly in relationship
with the ability to preserve, rather to increase, its identity and
characterization through different and discontinuous historical and cultural
moments.
In this
study case the design approach for a new project inside this historical center
was to identify different codes of harmony as transforming rules and apply them
to manage increasing complexity. Particularly, these codes of harmony were
performed trying to fit, with a design hypothesis, three of the most important
historical and cultural steps of Rome: Imperial age, medieval age and baroc.
These codes
were dynamic contemporary interpretations of historical rules.
We applied,
in sequence, these transforming codes of harmony to manage the “clarity” of
final results. At the end a “Generative
Project” was realized. And this project was used to pursue the concept of
increasing identity of Rome identifying and performing a contemporary approach
to complexity were future scenarios will have the memory of stratified cultural
references as time patina.
This
approach works because the design idea is a concept of possible future
scenarios performed as operative metaproject, and is not only simplified with a
form. The idea, performed as Generative Project, is a code of transformation, a
set of rules that can start up an evolutionary process that can manage the
increasing complexity and identity of an artificial environment in reaching
ever more levels of quality and satisfaction.
The generative
approach fit the new concept of town design.
The last
experimentations were about Hong Kong, Los Angeles and other cities.
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Hong
Kong waterfront, generated sequence of skyscrapers.
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Hong Kong waterfront, increasing complexity and identity |
I designed
a DNA of these cities and I used that to perform incoming new scenarios.
The idea
was:
- Find the identity codes of
these cities, fitting the concept approach to multi function semi-public
semi-private architectures.
These codes avoid to simplified town organization but pursue a
fractal complexity: each space is like a town inside the town, and so on.
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Two
different scenarios of the same evolutionary generative architectural project
in Hong Kong
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- Design a set of transforming
codes that can represent the identity of these cities.
- Experiment these codes
generating a sequence of different and unpredictable scenarios that reach
the aim:
- An increasing complexity of the city
- An increasing identity of the city
To verify
that, I generated sequences of urban scenarios as improvements of existing
scenarios.
I presented
these scenarios in public exhibitions to verify how this increasing complexity
of their city could fit the evolutionary ideas of its inhabitants. Results were
impressive and exciting talking with exhibition’s visitors, especially young
people.
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Hong
Kong Central, behind the HSBC, increasing the site identity and
recognizability. A generated new building. |
The reason
was that the inhabitants discovered that their city could increase its
identity!
Now, I am
working in visionary evolutionary scenarios of other cities: Washington DC,
Macau, Shanghai, New York.
The
verified that citizens of these cities recognize themselves in these generated
evolutionary scenarios.
So the
subtended Generative Projects work. And it’s possible to use it in managing the
evolution of cities. More, it’s necessary if we intend to preserve these city’s
identities.
9.
Codes of Harmony
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The first
step, in generative design, is to
construct the set of codes that identify each city. We could call them codes of
harmony. And we can perform, with them, a generative town project.
Italian
Renaissance culture had identified the harmony as logic linked to the process
of construction of artificial environments, to the systems of relationships and
proportions that tie different events inside architectures and cities. The
harmony therefore is a logic that defines the modus operandi of designing acts.
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Hong Kong
waterfront in the night. A generated new architecture. |
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Los
Angeles, generated architectures to increase city identity. |
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Two
parallel generated urban scenarios for an Asian city on the sea
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The codes
of harmony, in the different cultures, has always been the way to find and use,
in the construction of artificial environments, the logics that is possible to
read in the natural world.
These
logics are strongly tied to each different culture even if it is possible to
find a common substratum between different traditions in the processes of
interpretation of nature.
These
logical rules, interpreting nature, define dynamics of transforming
environments toward harmony. These rules are a design synthesis of the manifold
aspects belonging to the construction of possible scenarios.
The
operational hypothesis to manage the evolutionary dynamics of cities is to
identify and to realize, as generative executable projects, the codes of
harmony that represent specific urban identities.
We can do
that through some different phases:
- Identification of urban dynamic
transformations
proper of a specific city, reading, as rules of transformation, the
historical evolutions of the city and the contemporary tensions.
Particularly it is possible to identify and to codify these evolutionary
rules as:
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Structures
of dynamic progression of the spatial dimensions;
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Structures
of progressive transformation of the topological relationships;
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Rules
able to control the progressive scenarios represented through perspective
visions;
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Sequences
of rhythms and progressive discoveries of urban space;
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Contemporary
presences of events structured in dynamic relationships among the dimensional
multiplicities of the built;
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Coincidences
and contradictions
between the existing spaces and those possible;
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Relationship
between whole and parts, activating controls on the dynamics of fractal
sequences proper of complex systems.
- Construction of whole codes
of transformation that represents the identity of a city through
operational tools of emulation and simulation of the existing executable
dynamics.
- Construction of a paradigm
of control of complexity that represents, in the city’s evolutionary
dynamics, the structure of relationships subtended in the system of the
city, and that fit, at various scales, the same codes. This paradigm
becomes the operational tool to manage connections, contaminations and
mutual conditionings among the dynamics of growth of the manifold events
that transform the city.
- Identification of bifurcations
in the complex system representing the city and that determines the plurality
of possible identities in the various districts of the same city.
These manifold identities represent possible scenarios belonging to same
species, to same urban identity. Urban identity, in fact, is such if it
succeeds in generating different individuals of the same species, quarters
and places that, also in their oneness, represent different evolutionary
possibilities of the same city.
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A
generated sequence of two different “quarters identity” and their
relationship. |
- Identify and design the role of
possible exceptions as incoming engine for increasing dynamic order
and clarity.
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Los
Angeles, a skyscraper as exception that enhances the town identity
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The result
is enthusiastic: the city grows following its own vocations and each incoming
need becomes occasion for an increase of quality, identity and uniqueness of
the city.
10.
Structure and use of Generative City Projects
Building a
Generative Project is putting together:
- The paradigm that is the plan
that defines relationships and structure of complexity;
- The rules of transformation, the algorithms that explain
and design how the present can evolve through the future.
A
generative code with these elements, paradigm and rules of transformation, can
become, in a progressive increase of complexity, an executable meta-project
that identifies the character, the recognizability and the communicative
clarity of every possible event of city's development. If we use it, we can
generate an endless sequence of incoming town shapes and city’s scenarios, all
different and unpredictable but all belonging and representing one of the
possible result of the same city identity.
This is due
to the fact that algorithms are logical structures of representations of
transformations that can be operated with manifold and different objects and on
different occasions. Paradigm and algorithms of transformation define in fact
"how" to operate and not "what" to do or to choose.
The
interaction between citizens peculiar needs and city evolutionary project is made possible by the fact that
logics, roles and relationships present in the generative project are not
simplified and are in progress.
The
structure of the functional needs of each inhabitant finds, in this increasing
complexity and in the potentiality of functional performances, a wide space to
express itself through the paradigmatic interpretation, also multiple, of the
possible evolutions.
At the same
time the more the paradigm consolidates, the more the occasions grows to apply
the code of harmony, as in nature.
In other
terms we can affirm that the more the requirements of the citizen are
complex and "impossible", the more the potentialities of the
generative code are made operational, and therefore doesn’t remain unexpressed.
And consequently if the control of the code, taking advantages of the occasion
for specific requirements, work on all levels, from the global to the detail,
it increases the communicative clarity, the identity and the quality of the
city. (C. Soddu, Generative Art Conference, 2000)
Requests
and new needs are occasions and not constrains. This is the peculiarity of
Generative approach.
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Two
city scenarios generated with a particular code managing building topology.
References Books in Italian: C.Soddu,
"Citta' Aleatorie", (random cities), Masson Publisher. 1989 Last books and papers: C.Soddu, "GENERATIVE
ART", proceedings of GA'98, Ed.Dedalo Publisher, Rome 1999 C. Soddu, "New naturality: a Generative
Approach to Art and Design" in Artificial Life 7 workshop proceedings,
C.Maley, E.Boudreau Editors, Portland, Ontario, USA, 2000 C. Soddu, Generative Art 2001, Milan,
AleaDesign Publisher, December 2001 C.Soddu, “Generative Art, Visionary
Variations”, Catalog of the exhibition at Visual Art Centre, Hong Kong
Museum, 2002 C.Soddu,
“New Naturality: a Generative approach to Art and Design”, Leonardo Magazine
35, MIT press, July 2002 C.Soddu,
“Clarity, Complexity, Harmony and Safety: Generative Identity’s Codes build
Livable Cities”, Cities Asia Summit, Singapore, 5-6 November 2002. |
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