its own independence in 1836.
War was begun by Great Britain against Spain in 1739, and Admiral Vernon was sent with a squadron to act against the Spanish dominions in the West Indies.
He sailed from Jamaica with six ships, attacked Porto Bello (Nov. 21), and captured it. He blew up the castle and fortifications there and returned to Jamaica.
The next year a great fleet was despatched to reinforce Vernon, who held possession of Porto Bello and Chagres, on the Atlantic side of the Isthmus of Panama, depots for all merchandise destined for the Pacific coast.
The fleet conveyed an army of 12,000 men, led by General Cathcart, and the number of seamen amounted to 15,000.
The army was composed of British regulars, battalions from the American colonies, and negroes from Jamaica—the greatest armament ever seen in the West Indies.
The second in command of the troops was Sir Alexander Spottswood (q. v.), formerly governor of Virginia.
The expedition met with disaster.
While the fleet
f the United States, and Señor Selva, the commissioner of Nicaragua, had been, as was publicly and universally known, disapproved by his government.
We have no precedent in our history to justify such a treaty as that negotiated by Mr. Hise since the guarantees we gave to France of her American possessions.
The treaty negotiated with New Granada on Dec. 12, 1846, did not guarantee the sovereignty of New Granada on the whole of her territory, but only over the single province of the isthmus of Panama, immediately adjoining the line of the railroad, the neutrality of which was deemed necessary by the President and Senate to the construction and security of the work.
The thirty-fifth article of the treaty with Nicaragua negotiated by Mr. Squier, which is submitted for your advice in regard to its ratification, distinctly recognizes the rights of sovereignty and property which the state of Nicaragua possesses in and over the line of the canal therein provided for. If the Senate dou
medicine in Philadelphia and later at the University of Edinburgh; returned to the United States and practised in New York for a few years, and was then appointed surgeon on a vessel for the Pacific Mail Steamboat Company, and made trips between Panama and San Francisco.
He was United States consul at Rheims, France, in 1865-67.
He contributed largely to journals and magazines; and was author of Panama in 1855; The American in Japan; The battles of America by sea and land; The War with the Soes and practised in New York for a few years, and was then appointed surgeon on a vessel for the Pacific Mail Steamboat Company, and made trips between Panama and San Francisco.
He was United States consul at Rheims, France, in 1865-67.
He contributed largely to journals and magazines; and was author of Panama in 1855; The American in Japan; The battles of America by sea and land; The War with the South: a history of the Great American rebellion, etc. He died in Brooklyn, N. Y., Aug. 28, 1882.
at McConkey's Ferry. graduated at Charleston College in 1840; admitted to the bar in 1843; assistant Secretary of State from December, 1860, till the secession of South Carolina; held a seat in the legislature of that State in 1862-66; began the practice of law in Washington in 1875; was a member of the commission of 1880 to revise the treaty with China; special agent to the belligerents of Peru, Chile, and Bolivia in 1881, and during the same year represented the government in the negotiations concerning its rights in the Isthmus of Panama; appointed with General Grant in 1882 to effect a commercial treaty with Mexico.
His publications include A few thoughts on the foreign policy of the United States; The diplomacy of the Revolution; Diplomatic system of the United States; An American view of the Eastern question; The diplomatic history of the administrations of Washington and Adams; Address before the South Carolina Historical Society, etc. He died in Pendleton, S. C., May 4, 1898.
the conquest of Mexico to Charles V. of Spain......July 10, 1519
Panama founded by Pedrarias......1519
Montezuma, emperor of the Mexicanaccomplishes the conquest of Mexico......1521
Pizarro sails from Panama for Peru, but returns for supplies and repairs......Nov. 14, 1524
, 1826
South American states call a general congress, to meet at Panama in June, 1826, and to consider the rights of those states, and inviadelphia, delegates......March 14, 1826
During the debate on the Panama congress in the Senate, John Randolph refers to the coalition of Adnt to jointly guarantee the neutrality of the interoceanic canal at Panama would be regarded by the United States as an uncalled — for interfermines to guarantee free and uninterrupted transit across the isthmus of Panama, now threatened by insurgents......April 2, 1885
Special s City......April 8, 1885
Five hundred United States troops enter Panama, arrest Aizpuru, leader of insurgents, and protect American propert
Winthrop, Theodore 1828-
Military officer; born in New Haven, Conn., Sept. 22, 1828; graduated at Yale College in 1848, and on his return from Europe, in 1851, became tutor to a son of William H. Aspinwall, of New York, whose counting-house he afterwards entered.
In the employ of the Pacific Steamship Company, he resided in Panama two years, and visited California, Oregon, and Vancouver's Island.
He was one of the sufferers in the expedition of Lieutenant Strain to explore the Isthmus of Darien, returning in impaired health in 1854.
On the fall of Fort Sumter he joined the 7th N. Y. Regiment; went with it to Annapolis; became military secretary to General Butler at Fortress Monroe, with the rank of major, and was killed in battle at Great Bethel, Va., June 10, 1861.
upon Spanish commerce, not as a mere matter of power simply, but in the exercise of the sovereign rights of war, under the laws of nations.
With regard to the new American republics, thus acknowledged by the United States as belligerents, it will be recollected that one of the first acts of Mr. John Quincy Adams, when he became President of the United States, was to recommend the passage of a law authorizing him to send members to a Congress of all the American States, to be assembled at Panama.
Under this law, members of that Congress were actually appointed—though they never proceeded to their destination—and Mr. Clay, then Secretary of State, and who had been among the foremost to advocate the recognition of the independence of the South American republics, prepared an elaborate and eloquent letter of instructions for their guidance, in which he dwelt upon the very principles I am now invoking.
The republics, whose ambassadors it was thus proposed to meet, in an International
cap differs from a hat in the shape of its brim, which projects from one side only, and is called a fore-piece or visor. A bonnet differs from a cap in the angle at which the brim projects from the body.
Hat.
Among the different kinds of hats may be cited, the
Cloth-hat.Leather-hat.
Cork-hat.Paper-hat.
Embossed-hat.Silk-hat.
Felt-hat.Spring-brim hat.
Fur-hat.Straw-hat.
Collapsible hats, for opera or traveling, are made with springs or of springy material.
See Operahat.
Panama hats are made of the leaves of the pandamus or seren pine (Carludovica palmata). These are gathered before they unfold, the ribs and coarser veins are removed, and the rest, without being separated from the base of the leaf, is reduced to shreds.
After having been put in the sun for a day, and tied into a knot, the straw is immersed in boiling water until it becomes white.
It is then hung up in a shady place, and subsequently bleached for two or three days, after which the straw is ready f
ilroad between Arequipa and Puno in Peru is 14,586 feet above the sea.
The length of the Panama Railway from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean is nearly 48 miles; the summit ridge is 287 feet above the mean tide of the Atlantic.
The distance from New York to Hongkong via Cape Horn is more than 17,000 miles, but by this railway across the Isthmus it is less than 12,000, — a saving of 5,500 miles. This railway was opened in January, 1855.
Starting from Aspinwall, on the Atlantic side, for Panama, on the Pacific, the traveler is soon in the midst of a scene of tropical beauty hardly to be surpassed in the world.
Cocoa-palms and bread-fruit trees wave their branches on either side, and from the fastnesses of murky swamps richly colored aquatic plants rise in luxuriant wildness.
The cries of gorgeously plumaged birds are heard on all sides, and now and then the discordant notes of monkeys, parrots, and other natives of the woods.
On the low muddy banks of streams can be seen the hu
l sentiments, he did not hesitate to obey.
It was then a compensative satisfaction to be sent under the new administration with which he was in accord to command the Department of California. General Twiggs's defection and dismissal gave Sumner a brigadiership.
His California work was made remarkable by his rallying the Union element and frightening disunionists.
Prominent secessionists he caused to be arrested; and some to be apprehended outside of California while they were en route via Panama toward the Gulf States.
Such was. the war-worn, loyal Sumner who arrived in Washington the last of November, 1861.
McClellan immediately assigned him to duty, expecting just then some active campaigning.
Sumner was to choose his division from the provisional forces.
He naturally advised with Casey, the commander of all the provisional organizations.
It was my good fortune to have won General Casey's favorable opinion.
He commended me for industry and energy.
Those were the qualities
