Kenapa Kita Perlu Belajar?

Pendidikan adalah lebih dari itu.Bukan sekadar mendapat pengetahuan untuk dibuat jawapan dalam kertas jawapan. Mencari ilmu itu adalah suatu ibadah bagi orang Islam, dan bagi yang bukan Islam mungkin sebagai pemangkin untuk mendapat pekerjaan yang profesional, dan seterusnya menaikkan martabat dan kedudukan negara sebagai Negara Islam yang mampu berdaya saing dalam bidang profesional.

Sesetengah pelajar mungkin tidak berfikiran jauh dan tidak mahu mengakui bahawa mereka itu adalah pelapis harapan bangsa.Tetapi InsyaAllah, saya yakin anda semua berfikiran ke hadapan. Anda semua adalah orang yang mahu berjaya, bukan sahaja di dunia malah di akhirat.Mungkin juga anda para pelajar terfikir, `Saya masih kecil, apa saya hairan dengan ekonomi dan pembangunan negara?` Sesungguhnya, bangun dan rebahnya sesebuah negara terletak kepada remaja-remaja negara itu.

Anda tidak percaya?? Atau anda sengaja tidak mahu mengakui bahawa andalah yang akan memimpin negara..ye ANDA! Bukan nenek yang tengah menyiram pokok bunga, bukan datuk yang tengah membawa beca ,bukan ayah yang sedang bekerja di pejabat.

Mengapa anda merasakan anda tidak bertanggungjawab dalam urusan sesebuah negara, sedangkan andalah tujuan negara membuat pembangunan,untuk andalah semua ini,supaya negara sentiasa maju dan aman dan dapat diwarisi oleh waris-waris kita nanti.

Adik-adikku...

Anda boleh melihat pejuang-pejuang negara kita mempertahankan negara bangsa semasa dijajah oleh penjajah-penjajah tidak lama dulu? Adik-adikku, bukan senang untuk merdeka, tetapi sayang kemerdekaan kita bukan kemerdekaan hakiki, bukan kemerdekaan secara total kerana negara kita sedang rebah dan menanti masa untuk dipijak oleh kerana ketandusan pemuda pemudi harapan bangsa. Kerana apa? Kerana generasi-generasi kita sekarang ketandusan ilmu, hilang akal fikiran untuk berfikir mana satu yang patut dicontohi. Fahaman sekular yang mengasingkan agama dengan kehidupan atau fahaman yang diajar oleh Rasullulah S.A.W. yang mengajar Islam itu adalah ad-deen .

Begitulah pentingnya anda, jikalau anda yang membaca ini berfikir aku bukan apa-apa,aku hanyalah sampah masyarakat, aku hanyalah pencuri, aku hanyalah penagih dadah yang hanya boleh dilabel sebagai tahi masyarakat. Maka anda semua silap, semua manusia di dunia ini ada hak untuk menjalani kehidupan yang diingini. Mungkin itu takdir kita, tetapi manusia juga perlu berusaha menjadi sesuatu yang lebih baik. Allah tidak akan mengubah nasib sesuatu kaum, selagi kaum itu tidak mengubah nasib mereka.

Kebanyakan pelajar-pelajar di Malaysia hanya sekadar menghafal dan mungkin juga ada yang memahami sesuatu pelajaran itu ,tetapi mereka hanya mampu mengeluarkan ilmu yang dipelajari hanya pada sekeping kertas, yang tidak mempunyai nilai dan harga.
“ Eh!! Ape pula tiada harga, result exam saya bergantung pada kertas itu la”

Ya, memang benar keputusan peperiksaan kamu bergantung kepada jawapan yang kamu berikan. Tetapi pernahkah anda terfikir, apa lagi yang boleh dilakukan jikalau kita mempunyai ilmu ? Banyak adik-adik..Apa yang anda semua pelajari mungkin boleh digunakan lebih daripada jangkauan minda anda sendiri. Mungkin dengan menggunakan ilmu yang anda pelajari, anda boleh menghentikan serangan Yahudi ke atas Palestin, atau mungkin juga pelajaran anda itu boleh digunakan untuk menyelamatkan kawan kamu daripada menagih dadah atau mungkin lebih dari itu.

Itulah yang dinamakan beramal dengan ilmu yang dipelajari. Saya tidak yakin bahawa apa yang kita pelajari dapat digunakan sepenuhnya di medan pekerjaan. Sememangnya ada yang membantu, tetapi kita akan sentiasa menambah ilmu untuk bekerja supaya kita tidak ketinggalan.

Adik-adikku...

Memang senang sahaja bercakap, dan mungkin susah untuk dilakukan, tetapi usaha itu penting.Jikalau tanpa usaha, kita tidak akan ke mana-mana. Sememangnya tidak ada yang akan berubah jika kita hanya duduk.Bahkan kalau kita duduk sahaja, makan, tidur dan buang air besar di tempat yang sama. Apa yang akan terjadi? Maka bersepahlah rumah kita ,tunggang langganglah rumah kita. Samalah dengan manusia pada hari ini, berbincang tentang faktor-faktor buang bayi, tetapi apa yang masyarakat lakukan untuk mengatasi masalah tersebut? Hal ini bukanlah atas tanggungjawab ibu kepada anak itu, tetapi tanggungjawab kepada semua orang.

Ya, saya mengerti, anda semua masih remaja dan tidak ada sebabnya saya membawa kamu berfikir kepada perkara sesulit ini. Tetapi kehidupan manusia itu tidak akan bermakna jikalau manusia itu tidak ingin berfikir terhadap apa yang berlaku di sekelilingnya.

Sekarang, mari saya bawa anda semua tentang realiti kehidupan . Para ibu bapa hari ini ingin melihat anak-anak mereka berjaya bukan sahaja di dunia malahan juga di akhirat. Tetapi, sedihnya sesetengah para ibu bapa hari ini hanya mementingkan kehidupan di dunia dan bukan kedua-duanya. Tetapi saya yakin, anda semua adalah manusia yang sudah boleh berfikir apa yang baik untuk diri kamu semua. Jangan menyalahkan ibu bapa atau orang sekeliling sekiranya anda tersalah memilih jalan. Salahkan diri anda sendiri kerana berat mulut hendak bertanya, dan salahkan diri anda sendiri kerana tidak mahu ringan tulang mencari ilmu.

Adik-adikku, saya hendak bertanya satu soalan, kalau anda seorang yang suka berfikir, sudah tentu anda akan dapat menjawabnya.
Siapa kamu? Manusia atau bukan manusia? Manusia adalah benda hidup. Anda boleh berjalan, makan, berlari dan bernafas.. Betul tidak?
Ilmu itu apa? Bukan benda hidup atau benda hidup? Ilmu itu manusia kah?
Semestinya bukan benda hidup kerana ilmu tidak boleh bernafas, tidak boleh berjalan, apa lagi makan. Jadinya bagaimana caranya ilmu itu hendak datang kepada kita jika ilmu itu tiada kaki? Jadi, sudah pasti kita lah yang patut berlari ke arah ilmu.

Adik-adikku, ingatlah sebelum kamu berlari mencari ilmu, cuba berfikir sejenak dan bertanya pada diri anda sendiri, mengapa anda ingin belajar? Mengapa anda ingin mencari ilmu? Jawapannya hanya anda yang tahu. Tepuk dada tanya minda?

Quote

Bacalah dengan nama Tuhanmu
Itulah permulaan ilmu
Sebagai yang telah diwahyukan
Menuntut ilmu satu kewajipan

Ilmu menjadi penyuluh jalan
Dengan ilmu dapat kemuliaan
Ilmu memajukan kehidupan
Ilmu yang baik dapat keberkatan

Sabda Rasul junjungan
Carilah ilmu pengetahuan
Dari dalam buaian
Hingga hari kematian

Tuntutlah ilmu hai teman
Janganlah kita siakan
Untuk masa hadapan
Agama dan bangsa

Utlubul 'ilma
Walaw fissin
Tuntutlah ilmu
Walau ke negeri China

Jangan berilmu tanpa amalan
Bagai pohon tanpa buahnya
Ilmu yang berkat membuatkan taqwa
Bermanfaat sesama insan

Bangkok

Bangkok, The City of Angels or "Krungthep" [กรุงเทพมหานคร] in Thai, is the capital city of Thailand. Bangkok is the hub for most of the commercial and economical activities of the Kingdom. At the same time, the City is very famous and appreciated by visitors for its versatility and multiple points of interests. From temples, the Grand Palace, all the way over the some of Asia's largest shopping centers and the largest outdoor market of Asia (Chatuchak), Bangkok definitely has what it takes to entertain visitors from all origins, either first time or return travelers. Whilst Taxi fares are very reasonable, most of the sightseeing can comfortably be reached by Skytrain (BTS) or Underground train (MRT). Aside of the sightseeing and shopping, Bangkok has developed into a magnet for food lovers of all origins. The same range of choice applies to the accommodation options all over town, from high end international chain hotels to family run guesthouses, demands of all travelers are met. In terms of wellness and relaxation – Bangkok has recently seen a huge development of city Spas and Wellness centers, in addition to the long established Thai massage centers.

Sugarbeets

I. History:
Sugarbeet (Beta vulgaris) growing for sucrose production became successful in the United States starting about 1870. Earlier attempts at sugarbeet production were not totally successful. Once a viable industry was established, sugarbeets were grown in 26 states. About 1,400,000 acres were produced in 14 states in 1990. Minnesota and North Dakota produced about 550,000 acres. Other leading sugarbeet states are Idaho, California, Michigan, Nebraska, Wyoming, Montana, Colorado and Texas. Canada produces sugarbeets in Manitoba and Alberta. Russia leads worldwide production of sugarbeets with nearly 8,500,000 acres followed by Poland, France, West Germany and Turkey with about 1,000,000 acres each. The United States beet sugar industry has experienced great change in the last three decades. A total of 10 beet processors operated 53 factories in 18 states in 1973 while nine companies operated only 36 factories in the United States in 1990.

II. Uses:
Sugarbeets are used primarily for production of sucrose, a high energy pure food. Man's demand for sweet foods is universal. Honey was the main sweetener for primitive man. Trade in sugar from sugarcane can be traced to primitive times too. The sugarbeet was recognized as a plant with valuable sweetening properties in the early 1700s.

A. Human Food:
Sucrose from sugarbeets is the principal use for sugarbeets in the United States. Sugarbeets contain from 13 to 22% sucrose. Sucrose is used widely as a pure high energy food or food additive. High fiber dietary food additives are manufactured from sugarbeet pulp and major food processors in the United States have used these dietary supplements in recently introduced new products including breakfast cereals.

B. Livestock Feed:
Sugarbeet pulp and molasses are processing by-products widely used as feed supplements for livestock. These products provide required fiber in rations and increase the palatability of feeds. Sugarbeet tops also can be used for livestock feed. Sheep and cattle ranchers allow grazing of beet fields in the fall to utilize tops. Cattle and sheep also will eat small beets left in the field after harvest but producers grazing livestock in harvested fields should be aware of the risk of livestock choking on small beets.

Beet tops (leaves and petioles) also can be used as silage. Sugarbeets that produce 20 tons/acre of roots also produce a total of about 5 tons/acre of TDN per acre in the tops. Tops are an excellent source of protein, vitamin A, and carbohydrates but are slightly inferior to alfalfa haylage or corn silage for beef cattle. Tops are equal to alfalfa haylage or corn silage for sheep. Beet top silage is best fed in combination with other feeds. Tops should be windrowed in the field and allowed to wilt to 60-65% moisture before ensiling. See Morrisons Feeds and Feeding Handbook for a detailed description of the nutrient content of sugarbeet tops and roots.

C. Industrial Uses:
Molasses by-products from sugarbeet processing are used widely in the alcohol, pharmaceuticals, and bakers yeast industries. Waste lime from the processing of sugarbeets is an excellent soil amendment to increase soil pH levels. Waste lime is a good source of P & K plant nutrients. Treated processing waste water also may be used for irrigation.

III. Growth Habit:
Sugarbeet is a biennial plant which was developed in Europe in the 18th century from white fodder beets. Sugar reserves are stored in the sugarbeet root during the first growing season for an energy source during overwintering. The roots are harvested for sugar at the end of the first growing season but plants which overwinter in a mild climate will produce flowering stems and seed during the following summer and fall. Sugarbeet roots win not survive the winter in North Dakota, Minnesota, and Wisconsin. Sugarbeet is a summertime crop in the northern United States and a winter or summer crop in more southern, semi-arid regions. Sugarbeet seed for the United States is produced in Oregon where the climate is cool enough for vernalization but warm enough for the roots to live through the winter.

The plant has a taproot system that utilizes water and soil nutrients to depths of 5 to 8 ft. As sugarbeet plants emerge, a pair of cotyledons unfold. Successive leaves develop in pairs throughout the growing season. The life expectancy of sugarbeet leaves varies from 45 to 65 days and is temperature dependent.

Photothermal induction is necessary to bring about complete reproductive development of the plant. The sugarbeet normally is a diploid plant. It is cross pollinated with wind being the effective agent.

IV. Environment Requirements:
A. Climate:
Sugarbeets have adapted to a very wide range of climatic conditions. Sugarbeets primarily are a temperate zone crop produced in the Northern Hemisphere at latitudes of 30 to 60°N. Sugarbeets can be produced in hotter and more humid environments, however, problems with insects, disease and low quality of the crop are more common in such geographical arm.

The sugarbeet plant grows until harvested or growth is stopped by a hard freeze. Sugarbeets primarily grow tops until the leaf canopy completely covers the soil surface in a field. This normally takes 70 to 90 days from planting. Optimal daytime temperatures are 60 to 80°F for the first 90 days of plant growth. Regions with long day length are most suitable for sugarbeet growth. The most favorable environment for producing a sugarbeet crop from 90 days after emergence to harvest is bright, sunny days with 65 to 80°F temperatures followed by nighttime temperatures of 40 to 50°F. These environmental conditions maximize yield and quality in a sugarbeet crop.

B. Soil:
Sugarbeets are well adapted to a wide range of soil types. In the United States, sugarbeets am produced on coarse textured sandy soils to high organic matter, high clay content, silty clay or silty clay loam soils. A soil free or nearly free of stones is particularly desirable. Stones cause problems for sugarbeet planting, thinning, harvesting and processing equipment. Dryland sugarbeet production generally is limited to soils with high water holding capacities in areas with 20 in. of rainfall or more. Sugarbeets are successfully produced under irrigation in regions with very low rainfall.

V. Cultural Practices:
A. Seedbed Preparation:
Field selection and seedbed preparation are critical to establishment of the sugarbeet crop. Objectives are to manage crop residues effectively, minimize erosion, improve soil structure to meet needs of the crop and eliminate early season weeds.

Fall tillage should be matched to soil type, amount and type of previous crop residue present, and be compatible with soil conservation requirements. Mold board plows, chisel plows, disks and field cultivators all have been successfully used for primary fall tillage. Fall tillage systems should maintain enough residue on the soil surface to prevent erosion or be compatible with cover cropping systems for erosion control. Spring tillage should be kept to an absolute minimum. Objectives are to preserve seedbed moisture, maintain enough crop residues on the soil to stop erosion, and reduce the chance of wind damage to weak sugarbeet seedlings as they emerge. The spring seedbed should be as level as possible and firm to well packed to allow good seed to soil contact when planting. Common spring tillage tools are light harrows, multiweeders, and combination Danish tine, harrow, rolling basket tillage tool systems. Spring tillage should be only 1 to 2 in. deep. Planting should be done as quickly as possible after spring tillage before seedbed drying can occur. Sugarbeets are planted only 0.75 to 1.5 in. deep.

Sugarbeets have been successfully planted with no-till, with strip tillage in previous crop residues, and other reduced tillage systems. These tillage alternatives often require specialized equipment, greater planning and better management to be successful.

B. Seeding Date:
Research in North Dakota, Minnesota, Michigan and other states indicates highest yields and crop quality are attained with early planting. Growers generally accept some risk of early frost damage and plant early. Optimum planting dates in Minnesota, North Dakota, and Wisconsin are from April 20 to May 10. Sugarbeets have been successfully planted as early as April 1st. They may be planted as late as June 10 and stiff produce a harvestable crop. Yields decline about 1.5 tons/week with each week delay in planting after May 10. Seedling sugarbeet plants have good tolerance to mild frosts and have survived temperatures in the mid-twenty degree range.

C. Method and Rate of Seeding:
Sugarbeets are planted with precision row crop planters. Plate and cell wheel planters or newer vacuum or air planters all work well. Sugarbeets may be planted to thin to a final stand or space planted to a desired final plant population. Seeding rates vary from 1 to 2 lbs of seed/acre. Sugarbeet planters should not be operated at more than four miles per hour. Planting speeds greater than four miles per hour result in increased skips, increased seed doubles or triples and seed damage. Sugarbeet seed should not be planted greater than 1.5 in. deep.

D. Row Width and Plant Populations:
Narrow row widths produce higher yields and quality than wide rows. Sugarbeets in narrow rows compete better with weeds also. Optimum row widths are 18 to 24 in., with 22 in. rows being most common. Sugarbeets may be planted in 30 in. rows for equipment convenience and compatibility with other row crops in rotation. However, sugarbeets planted in 30 in. rows commonly yield 400 to 600 lbs less recoverable sugar per acre than in 22 in. rows, with the same harvest populations. Also, higher more uniform plant populations, which will result in greater yield and quality, are easier to establish on narrow rows.

Sugarbeet plant populations should be from 30,000 to 40,000 uniformly spaced plants per acre at fiarvest. These populations should produce very good yields of easily harvested high quality sugarbeets. Growers can expect plants to be established from only 60 to 70% of the seed planted. Loss of 5 to 15% of established seedlings can be expected between planting or thinning and harvest depending on growing conditions.

E. Crop Rotations:
Yields and quality usually are highest when sugarbeets follow barley or wheat in the crop rotation. Yields usually are high when sugarbeets follow corn, potatoes or summer fallow in rotation, but higher than desirable residual soil nitrogen levels may follow these crops and reduce sugarbeet quality. Three years research in Minnesota indicated sugarbeet yielded significantly less when following soybeans versus barley in rotation. One year of research indicated sugarbeet yields also were reduced following dry edible beans in rotation.

F. Fertility and Cultural Practices:
Sugarbeets do not grow well on highly acidic soils and grow best on soils with a pH of 6.0 to 8.0. Sugarbeet culture on soils with pH lower than 6.0 should not be attempted until liming raises the pH to 7.0 or greater.

Profitable sugarbeet production depends largely on a high sucrose content/high tonnage crop. To accomplish this, growth-limiting factors such as soil fertility must be managed effectively.

Sugarbeets are unique in their nitrogen (N) requirements. Too little nitrogen results in poor leaf canopies, premature yellowing and reduced yields, while too much nitrogen leads to a reduced sucrose content, increased impurities and lowered sucrose extraction. For proper nitrogen management, pregrowing season soil nitrate-nitrogen (NO3-N) should be determined in a reputable laboratory that uses appropriate procedures and interpretations. NO3-N is mobile in the soil so residual nitrogen level should be determined annually. Phosphorus and potassium should be determined every three to four years.

Sugarbeet quality involves two concepts: the percent sucrose in the root and the level of impurities in the root, both of which affect sucrose extraction by the processor. Production of high quality sugarbeets is especially important to growers whose payment is based on the extractable sucrose content of their beets.

Proper nitrogen fertilizer use normally increases yield of both roots and sucrose and also may increase impurities and decrease the percent sucrose in the root. Use soil test information to select fields with nitrogen levels suited to expected yields, and to select fertilizer rates appropriate for expected yield goals. Excessive amounts of either residual or fertilizer nitrogen usually significantly lowers beet quality. Sugarbeets require 8 to 9 lbs of nitrogen/ton to produce a high quality, good yielding crop.

Table 1 shows the nitrogen, phosphate and potash recommendations for sugarbeets.

Table 1. Nitrogen, phosphate and potash recommendations for sugarbeets

Sugarbeet yield goal
Soil N plus fertilizer N needed*
Phosphorus
P Soil test Levels lb/acre)
Potassium
K Soil test Levels (lb/acre)

L 0-9
M 10-19
H 20-29
VH Over 30
L 0-99
M 100-199
H 200-299
VH Over 300

ton/acre
lb/acre/2 ft
P2O5 lb/acre
K2O lb/acre

16
95
60
35
10
0
85
50
15
0

17
100
60
35
10
0
90
55
20
0

18
110
65
40
15
0
95
55
20
0

19
115
70
40
15
0
100
60
20
0

20
120
75
45
15
0
105
65
20
0

22
130
80
50
15
0
115
70
25
0


*Subtract amount of NO3-N in top 2 feet of soil from these figures to determine the amount of N fertilizer to apply.
1All recommendations are for broadcast applications.

When selecting a sugarbeet yield goal and requesting fertilizer recommendations, remember that recoverable sugar is the product desired. Over-fertilization, particularly with nitrogen, can result in poor quality beets and reduced net returns. Therefore, judicious use of manageable factors such as nitrogen fertilizer, early planting, even spacing, adequate plant populations, weed control, timeliness of operations, disease and insect control all will improve recoverable sugar yield. A good method for selecting a yield goal is to use a yield approximately three tons/acre lower than the greatest yield produced on your farm or in your area.

Recent research in Minnesota and North Dakota indicated early season growth and/or yield responses to starter fertilizer occurred about 40% of the time. Significant responses are most likely to occur when soils test very low to low in phosphorus or have low levels of available nitrogen in the top 6 in. of soil.

Sugarbeet seeds and seedlings are sensitive to fertilizer salts. Germination damage may occur if excess nitrogen or potassium fertilizer is placed in direct contact with seed. In some areas, straight phosphate fertilizer materials may not be available in sufficient quantities. In this case, use monoammonium phosphate (11-48-0) or 10-34-0 liquid as a starter fertilizer. Seed germination reduction should be negligible from 5 or less pounds of nitrogen per acre in contact with beet seed and any slight effect would be more than offset by the improved yields from the banded phosphorus application on very low-testing soils. Do not apply more than 5 to 6 lbs/acre of nitrogen plus potassium as a starter in contact with the seed.

Sugarbeets growing on soils that test very low in phosphorus and/or potassium depend heavily on applied fertilizer. On soils testing medium or above, the crop is much less dependent on applied fertilizer. Fertilizer is applied on these soils to replace nutrients removed by the crop and/or as a starter to get the crop off to a fast start, especially in cool, cloudy springs. On very low testing soils where the plants depend largely on fertilizer for their needs, the method of application will influence the amount of fertilizer that plants can recover. Broadcast fertilizer is thoroughly mixed with the soil and, as a result, some is positionally unavailable to plant roots. Band or drill row fertilizer is applied closer to the seed and can be recovered more efficiently by the crop.

Sugarbeets are among the crops least susceptible to secondary and micronutrient deficiencies. The exception may be a susceptibility to boron and manganese shortages. Zinc deficiency has been reported on infrequent occasions in Minnesota. Responses to other micronutrients have not been reported or demonstrated. A soil test for these nutrients will answer questions that arise about possible needs for manganese, copper, or iron.

Calcium deficiency may be observed in sugarbeets in Minnesota and North Dakota. However, the deficiency apparently is a physiological problem. Soils in this area are high in calcium and application of calcium-containing fertilizers will not correct the deficiency. Yield losses due to this problem have not been documented.

G. Variety Selection:
Commercial sugarbeet variety development has been exclusively by private sugar and seed companies in the United States. American Crystal Sugar Company, Moorhead, Minnesota conducts the most comprehensive variety trials in the United States.

American Crystal's coded variety trials are designed to give an unbiased evaluation of the genetic potential of all sugarbeet variety entries while other variables (stand, fertility, moisture levels, etc.) are kept constant. These evaluations are used to establish a list of approved varieties which insures the use of the most productive varieties to maximize returns to the growers and sugar companies.

H. Weed Control:
Sugarbeets are poor competitors with weeds from emergence until the sugarbeet leaves shade the ground. Emerging sugarbeets are small, lack vigor, and take approximately two months to shade the ground. Thus, weeds have a long period to become established and compete. Sugarbeets are relatively short even after they shade the ground so many weeds that become established in a field prior to ground shading will become taller than the sugarbeets, shade the sugarbeets, and cause severe yield losses. To avoid yield loss from weed competition, weeds should be totally controlled by four weeks after sugarbeet emergence and weed control should be maintained throughout the season.

A combination of cultural, chemical, and mechanical weed control methods should be used to maximize weed control in sugarbeets. Some weed species such as kochia, common mallow, common milkweed, and velvetleaf are difficult or impossible to control selectively in sugarbeets with herbicides. These weeds in particular, and all weeds in general, should be effectively controlled in other crops in the rotation. Spot spraying or hand weeding small areas should be used to prevent establishment of problem weeds. Sugarbeets should not be planted on fields badly infested with problem weeds.

Cultivation with a row crop cultivator is a universal and essential weed control method in sugarbeets. Also, the rotary hoe or spring tine harrow can be used to remove small weeds from well rooted sugar beets. Hand weeding is still an important method of weed control in sugarbeets with 76% the acres in Minnesota and Eastern North Dakota receiving some hand weeding in 1989. Ile decision on using hand weeding or other methods of weed control should be based on expected economic returns. Generally herbicides will be more cost effective than hand weeding in moderate to heavy weed densities. Hand weeding may be more cost effective in low weed densities, especially if the target weed species are herbicide tolerant or too large for effective control.

1. Preemereence Contact or Tillage Substitution Herbicides. Glyphosate (several trade names) can be applied before sugarbeets emerge, to emerged weeds at 0.19 to 0.75 lb/acre (0.5 to 2 pt/acre). Use the higher rate on larger weeds, more resistant weeds, or if the plants are under moisture stress. Use 0.75 lb/acre to control living small grain cover crops. When low rates of glyphosate are used, apply in 3 to 10 gallons of water per acre by ground or in 3 to 5 gpa by air. Delay tillage for at least 3 days after treatment. Glyphosate is a non-selective translocated postemergence herbicide with no soil residual activity. A non-ionic surfactant should be used with glyphosate.

Paraquat (Gramoxone Extra) can be applied before sugarbeets emerge to emerged weeds at 0.62 to 0.94 lb/acre (2 to 3 pt/acre). Apply in 5 to 10 gpa of water by air or in 20 to 60 gpa by ground. Paraquat is a non-selective contact herbicide with no soil residual activity. A nonionic surfactant should be used with paraquat.

2. Soil-applied Herbicides: Good weed control with preemergence (non-incorporated) herbicides requires rainfall after application. Herbicides which are incorporated into the soil surface usually require less rainfall after application for effective weed control than unincorporated herbicides. Weeds emerging through a preemergence; herbicide treatment may be controlled by rotary hoeing or harrowing without reducing the effect of the herbicide unless the harrow or rotary hoe removes the herbicide from a treated band.

The reasons for using soil-applied herbicide in sugarbeets include the following:

To reduce early season weed competition.
To make postemergence herbicides more effective by increasing weed susceptibility and by reducing the total weed population.
To provide weed control if unfavorable weather prevents timely cultivations or postemergence herbicide applications.
A single herbicide treatment usually will not give total weed control. A preemergence or preplant incorporated herbicide followed by postemergence herbicides often will improve weed control compared to preemergence or preplant incorporated herbicides alone or postemergence herbicides alone.
Incorporation of Herbicides: Many herbicides applied before crop and weed emergence need to be incorporated to give optimum weed control. Included in this group are cycloate (Ro-Neet) and EPTC (Eptam). Weed control from ethofumesate (Nortron), pyrazon (Pyramin), and diethatyl (Antor) generally is improved by incorporation.

Cycloate (Ro-Neet) and EPTC (Eptam) should be incorporated immediately after application regardless of whether the liquid or granular formulation is used. Ethofumesate (Nortron), diethatyl (Antor), and pyrazon (Pyramin) may be used preemergence but incorporation usually improves weed control, especially on fine-textured soils or with limited rainfall after application. Incorporation may reduce weed control if heavy rains follow application and incorporation may increase sugarbeet injury compared to surface application. Experience indicates that lack of rainfall is more common than excess rainfall following planting.

An estimate of the efficiency of an incorporating tool can be obtained by operating the tool through flour or lime which has been spread thickly over the soil. A thorough incorporation should cover most of the flour or lime and give uniform mixing through the soil. Several tillage tools have been used successfully for the incorporation of herbicides. Some herbicides require more thorough incorporation than others and the incorporation method should be matched to the herbicide.

Cycloate and EPTC require a thorough incorporation and should be incorporated by one of the following methods or a method which will incorporate similarly.

A tandem disk should be set at a depth of 4 to 6 in. for EPTC or cycloate. Operating speed should be 4 to 6 mph. Tandem disks with disk blades spaced 8 in. or less and disk blade diameter of 20 in. or less have given good herbicides incorporation. Larger disks often give streaked incorporation and poor weed control.
Field cultivators of various types may be used. These should have overlapping sweep shovels with at least three rows of gangs and the operating depth should be 4 to 6 in. for EPTC and cycloate. A harrow should follow the field cultivator. The operating speed necessary to achieve a satisfactory incorporation will vary somewhat depending on the type of field cultivator but the speed usually will be 6 to 8 mph.
Field cultivators with Danish tines plus rolling crumblers behind have given good herbicide incorporation. These tools should be operated 4 in. deep and at 7 to 8 mph or faster. Adequate incorporation with one pass may be possible with these tools if soil conditions are ideal for herbicide incorporation. However, a second incorporation may be good insurance against poor weed control.
Power driven rototiller-type equipment will give adequate incorporation when set to operate at a depth of 2 to 3 in. at the manufacturer's recommended ground speed.
A single incorporation with a power driven rototiller is sufficient for cycloate or EPTC. However, a second tillage at right angles to the initial incorporation should be done if the disc or field cultivator is used. The second incorporation has two purposes:

Most of the herbicide left on the surface after the first incorporation will be mixed into the soil with the second tillage.
The second tillage will give more uniform distribution of the herbicide in the soil which will improve weed control and may reduce crop injury.
Ethofumesate, diethatyl, and pyrazon do not require deep incorporation. A tillage tool operating at a minimum depth of 2 in. will give adequate incorporation if the tool mixes the herbicide uniformly through the soil.

EPTC (Eptam) preplant incorporated in the spring at 2 to 3 lb/acre (2.3 to 3.4 pt/acre) or fall applied at 4 to 4.5 lb/acre (4.5 to 5.25 pt/acre) gives good control of annual grasses and certain broadleaf weeds. EPTC sometimes causes sugarbeet stand reduction and temporary stunting. However, no yield reduction will result if enough sugarbeets remain to obtain an adequate plant population after thinning. EPITC should be used with extreme caution on sugarbeets grown in loam or coarser-textured soils with low organic matter levels because a safe EPTC rate is difficult to predict on such soils.

Cycloate (Ro-Neet) spring applied at 3 to 4 lb/acre (4 to 5.3 pt/acre) or fall applied at 4 lb/acre (5.3 ptlacre) gives weed control similar to EPTC. EPTC tends to give better weed control than cycloate on fine-textured, high organic matter soils or under relatively dry conditions while cycloate gives better control than EPTC when spring rainfall is adequate to excessive. Cycloate causes less sugarbeet injury than EPITC and is thus safer for use on more coarse textured, low organic matter soils.

EPTC (Eptam) plus cycloate (Ro-Neet) has less potential for sugarbeet injury than EPTC alone and is less expensive per acre than cycloate alone. The rate of application of the mixture must be adjusted for soil texture and organic matter. Suggested fall applied rates are: cycloate alone at 4 lb/acre on soils with less than 3% organic matter, EPTC + cycloate at 1 + 3 lb/acre on loam or coarser soils with 3% organic matter, 1.5 to 2.5 lb/acre on loam to clay loam soils with 3 to 4% organic matter, 2 + 2 lb/acre on clay loam soils with 3.5 to 4.5% organic matter, and 2.5 + 2.5 lb/acre on clay or clay loam soils with over 4.5% organic matter. Suggested spring applied rates are: cycloate alone at 3 lb/acre on loam or coarser soils with 3 % or less organic matter, EPTC + cycloate at 1 + 2.5 lb/acre on loam or coarser soils with 3 to 3.5% organic matter, 1.5 + 2.5 lb/acre on loam to clay loam soils with 3.5 to 4.5% organic matter, and 2 + 2 lb/acre on clay loam or finer soils with 4% or more organic matter. These rates may need to be adjusted on certain fields or with certain incorporation tools based on individual experience. EPTC, cycloate, or EPTC + cycloate require immediate incorporation for best weed control.

Pyrazon (Pyramin) spring applied at 3.1 to 7.6 lb/acre (6 to 14.5 pt/acre) controls most broadleaf weeds. Pyrazon has been less effective on soils with more than 5% organic matter. Weed control from pyrazon generally increases as soil organic matter content decreases. Shallow incorporation generally improves weed control from pyrazon. High amounts of rainfall after application improves weed control from pryazon.

Ethofumesate (Nortron) at 3 to 3.75 lb/acre (16 to 20 pt/acre) gives good control of several broadleaf and grassy weeds, is especially effective on redroot pigweed, but is weak on yellow foxtail. Ethofumesate generally gives less sugarbeet injury than EPTC (Eptam) especially on more coarse textured, low organic matter soils. Ethofumesate may be applied preemergence but incorporation generally improved weed control in tests in North Dakota and Minnesota. Preemergence applications of ethofumesate will give good weed control when relatively large amounts of rain follow application. The exact amount of rain needed is not known but field observations indicate that at least I in. of rain is needed to give best results from preemergence ethofumesate. Coarse textured, low organic matter soils require less rain for activation than fine textured, high organic matter soils. Ethofumesate often has a residue the year following use on sugarbeets. Crops most likely to be damaged by ethofumesate residue are wheat, barley, and oats. Moldboard plowing usually eliminates carryover injury. Ethofumesate should be applied in a band to r6duce cost and reduce carryover.

Diethatyl (Antor) spring applied at 4 to 6 lb/acre (8 to 12 pt/acre) gives good to excellent control of redroot pigweed and prostrate pigweed. Diethatyl generally gives less sugarbeet injury than EPTC (Eptam) especially on coarse textured, low organic matter soils. Diethatyl may be applied preemergence but incorporation generally improved weed control in tests in North Dakota and Minnesota. Preemergence diethatyl will give good weed control if adequate rain follows application. Diethatyl needs amounts of rain similar to ethofumesate as discussed in the previous paragraph.

3. Postemergence Herbicides: Clopyralid (Stinger) at 0.09 to 0.25 lb/acre (0.25 to 0.66 pt/acre) postemergence controls several broadleaf weeds and volunteer crops. Clopyralid at 0.09 to 0.19 lb/acre is most effective when applied to common cocklebur, giant ragweed, marshelder, volunteer sunflower, wild sunflower, volunteer alfalfa, and volunteer soybeans up to the six-leaf stage, common ragweed up to the five-leaf stage and wild buckwheat in the three to five-leaf stage before vining begins. Clopyralid at 0. 19 to 0.25 lb/acre is most effective on Canada thistle in the rosette to pre-bud growth stage, but rosette application often gives better control than later application. Clopyralid must be applied to sugarbeets in the two to eight-leaf stage and at least 105 days prior to harvest. Clopyralid. is not registered for application by aircraft.

Clopyralid (Stinger) may have a herbicidally active residual in the soil following postemergence application. Wheat, barley, oats, grasses, corn and sugarbeets have good tolerance to clopyralid and can be planted any time following application. Other crops usually can be planted 12 months after treatment. Extreme conditions where topsoil remained cold or dry for extended periods after application may cause herbicidally active residual to persist for more than 12 months. In this case, small areas of lentils or peas should be planted as bioassay species prior to planting more extensive areas of lentils, peas, safflower, potatoes, alfalfa, sunflowers, edible beans, or soybeans. Time of clopyralid application during a season may influence the time of crop seeding the following year. For example, clopyralid applied June 15 would prevent seeding soybeans or edible beans until June 15 or later the following year.

Desmedipham (Betanex) and desmedipham + phenmedipham (Betamix) are posternergence herbicides for the control of annual broadleaf weeds. Sugarbeet injury occasionally occurs from desmedipham and phenmedipham. Sugarbeets with four true leaves are less susceptible to injury than smaller sugarbeets. Sugarbeets gain additional tolerance as they become larger than the four-leaf stage. Desmedipham at 0.25 to 0.5 lb/acre (1.5 to 3 pt/acre) or desmedipham plus phenmedipham at 0. 12 to 0.25 plus 0. 12 to 0.25 lb/acre (1.5 to 3 pt/acre) may be applied to sugarbeets with less than four leaves. Applications totaling 0.5 lb/acre or less should be followed by a second application in 5 to 7 days if living Weeds are present after 5 days. Split application with reduced rates has reduced sugarbeet injury and increased weed control compared to a single full dose application. Risk of sugarbeet injury is reduced by starting application in late afternoon so cooler temperatures follow application. Risk of injury is increased by factors such as recent flooding, high temperature, and a sudden change from a cool, cloudy environment to a hot, sunny environment. Sugarbeets and weeds in fields treated with a soil applied herbicide will be more susceptible to desmedipham and phenmedipham than untreated plants. Desmedipham and desmedipham plus phenmedipham vary in effectiveness on certain weed species.

Endothall (Herbicide 273) at 0.75 to 1.5 lb/acre (2 to 4 pt/acre) gives good control of wild buckwheat, and smartweed. Sugarbeets would have 4 to 6 leaves before application and should not be treated later than 40 days after emergence. Temperatures should be 60 to 80OF at application. Weed control may be poor when weeds are under even slight drought stress.

Sethoxydim (Poast) at 0.1 to 0.5 lb/acre (0.5 to 2.5 pt/acre) plus an oil additive will control annual grasses and suppress perennial grasses. An oil additive must be used for consistently good grass control. Tank mixing sethoxydim (Poast) plus oil additive with desmedipham, phenmedipham, or endothall often gives less grass control, especially of wild oats. Addition of ammonium sulfate at 2.5 lb/acre or 28% nitrogen solution at 0.5 to I gpa often will increase grass control especially when the water carrier has high levels of sodium carbonate or sodium bicarbonate. Application rates for several grass species are: 0. 1 lb/acre for wild proso millet; 0.2 lb/acre for green foxtail, yellow foxtail, giant foxtail, barnyardgrass, wooly cupgrass, wild oat, or volunteer corn; 0.28 lb/acre for volunteer cereals; and 0.25 lb/acre plus 0.2 lb/acre on regrowth for quackgrass.

Combinations of postemergence herbicides give more broad spectrum and greater total weed control compared to individual treatments. The risk of sugarbeet injury also increases with combinations so combinations should be used with caution. Ethofumesate (Nortron) in combination with desmedipham and desmedipham + phenmedipham has given improved weed control compared to desmedipham or desmedipham + phenmedipham used alone. These combinations increase the risk of sugarbeet injury. Endothall (H-273) has been used at 0.25 to 0.5 lb/acre in combination with desme4dipham or desmedipham + phenmedipham to give improved control of wild buckwheat compared to desmedipham or desmedipham + phenmedipham alone. Clopyralid plus desmedipham plus phenmedipham have given control of wild buckwheat, eastern black nightshade, common lambsquarters, and Russian thistle superior to clopyralid alone and to desmedipham or desmedipham plus phenmedipham alone.

4. Layby Herbicides: Trifluralin at 0.75 lb/acre (1.5 pt/acre) is cleared for use on sugarbeets when the sugarbeets are 2 to 6 in. tall and well rooted. Exposed beet roots should be covered with soil before application. Emerged weeds are not controlled. Trifluralin may be applied over the tops of the sugarbeets and incorporated with a harrow, rotary hoe, or cultivator adjusted to mix the herbicide in the soil without excessive sugarbeet stand reduction. Use of trifluralin can reduce the emergence of late season weeds which often cause problems in sugarbeets. EPITC (Eptam) at 3 lb/acre (3.4 pt/acre) is cleared as a layby herbicide for sugarbeets and should be applied similarly to trifluralin. However, the greater volatility of EPTC and the greater need for thorough incorporation make EPTC less likely to be effective as a layby herbicide than trifluralin. EPTC also can be applied by metering the herbicide into irrigation water. EPTC should be applied in the first irrigation after the last cultivation of the season.

Table 2. Effectiveness of herbicides on major weeds in sugarbeets.

Grasses
Broadleafs

Barnyard-grass
Foxtails (pigion-grass)
Wild oats
Canada thistle
Cocklebur
Common lambquarters
Eastern blacknight-shade
Kochia
Pigweed, redroot
Russian thistle
Sunflower, volunteer
Wild
buckwheat
Wild
mustard
Herbicide persistence after 12 mo.

Preemergence or preplant incorporated

coycloate (Ro-Neet.)
G
G
F/G
N
P
F/G
F/G
P
F/0
P
N
F/P
P
N

diethatyl (Astor)
F/G
F/G
F/G
p
P
P
F/G
P
G
p
P
P
P
N

EPTC (Eptam)
G
G
F/G
N
P
F
F/G
F
F/G
P
N
F
P
N

ethofumesate (Noftron)
P
F/G
F/G
N
P
P/F
F/G
F/G
G
F/G
P
F/G
F
O

pyrazon (pyramift)
P
p
P
P
P/F
G
a
P/F
G
P/F
P
P/F
G
N

Postemergence

clopyralid (Stinger)
P
N
N
G
G
P/F
F/G
N
P
P/P
G
F/G
p
S

desmedipham (Betanex)
P
P
N
N
PIF
G
G
P/G
G
P
P
F
G
N

desmedipham + phenmedipham
(Betamix)
P
F
N
N
F
G
G
F
F/G
P
P
F/G
G
N

endothall (Herbicide 273)
N
N
N
N
P/F
P
P
P/F
P
F/G
F/G
F
N

ethofamesate + desmedipham
(Nortfou + Betanex)
F
F/0
P
N
F/G
G
G
F/G
0
P/P
P
G
G
N

ethofumesate + desmedipham +
phenmedipham, (Nortron + Betamix)
F
F
P
N
F
G
G
F
G
P/F
P
F/G
G
N

sethoxydim (Proast)
G
G
G
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N

trifluralin (Layby)
G
G
F
N
N
G
N
G
a
N
N
F
N
0


G = Good; F = Fair, P = Poor, N = None; O = Often; S = Seldom; - = No data.

I. Diseases and Their Control:
Sugarbeet yield losses are caused by seedling blights, root rots and foliar diseases. Using appropriate control methods will eliminate or reduce losses from diseases.

The most common seedling pathogens are soilborne fungi. These include Aphanomyces cochlioides, Rhizoctonia solani and several Pythium species. Phoma betae is a seedborne pathogen that affects sugarbeets but has not been a common problem in the region. These diseases attack the seed and/or germinating or recently emerged seedlings. Seedling diseases caused by these fungi produce similar symptoms often called damping off. Two or more pathogens may simultaneously or successively attack seedlings. Disease severity and prevalence varies among regions, between fields and within a field. Seedling disease severity is determined by the availability of disease inoculum, environmental factors and varietal susceptibility.

Aphanomyces cochlioides and Rhizoctonia solani are the primary fungi that cause root rots of economic concern. Phoma betae, several Fusarium species, Pythium aphanidermatum and Erwinia caratovora are of minor importance. Many of these fungi survive for long periods of time in the soil. Symptoms vary from minor lesions to complete destruction of the root by dry or wet rots. Control methods for severe root rot and seedling disease problems include varietal resistance, fumigation crop rotations, seed treatments and fungicide application. Control of root rots is often expensive and temporary in nature. Commercial sugarbeet seed is usually pretreated with one or more protectant fungicides.

Cercospora leafspot caused by the fungus Cercospora beticola is the most serious foliar disease of sugarbeets in the north central United States. Losses of 30 % or greater recoverable sucrose per acre are fairly common under moderate to severe disease conditions. Also, roots of affected plants do not keep well in storage piles either. Many of the currently grown high yielding varieties are susceptible or moderately susceptible to Cercospora. Warm days and nights with high humidity or free water on the crop canopy are most conducive to serious disease outbreaks.

A Cercospora leafspot disease prediction model is available to monitor disease development and plan a fungicide control program. Crop rotation is an important control measure since the disease overwinters on infected beet leaves. A three year rotation is minimal for reducing disease inoculum. Burying beet refuse by tillage helps reduce inoculum survival and dispersal. Varieties vary greatly in Cercospora resistance. The disease develops slowly and is a minor problem on some varieties but can cause total defoliation of others. Triphenyl tin hydroxide fungicides give best Cercospora leaf spot control. Mancozeb and copper fungicides give acceptable Cercospora control especially with less severe disease outbreaks.

Powdery mildew, caused by the fungus Erysiphe betae, is the only other serious foliar disease of sugarbeets in the region. The disease is favored by long periods of drought, warm days cool nights and a wide fluctuation in day-night temperatures. Control of powdery mildew with sulfur fungicides is relatively inexpensive and usually very successful. Bayleton also is registered for powdery mildew control, but at rates that make control much more expensive than with sulfur. Crop rotation is not an effective control measure. Little data is available on varietal resistance or tolerance to the disease.

Other foliar diseases that occur in the region are of little if any economic importance. They include Ramularia, Alternaria and Phoma leaf spots. Virus diseases like Western Yellows, Curly Top and others are absent or of no economic importance.

J. Insects and Their Control
The sugarbeet root maggot, Tetanops myopaeformis is the most serious insect of sugarbeets in the region. It is present in all areas of the Red River Valley of Minnesota and North Dakota. Infestations are particularly severe on lighter textured soils. Damage is caused by the larval stage of the life cycle of the insect. Crop damage is caused by feeding on the plant root system. Stand loss may be severe if heavy infestations occur in the seedling stage. Plants surviving feeding damage may yield up to 50% less than undamaged fields. Sugarbeet root maggot control generally is good to excellent when granular soil insecticides are applied at planting time. Crop rotation and resistant varieties are not acceptable control alternatives.

Several species of cutworms are the second most important insect problem. Severe stand loss can occur when heavy infestation of cutworms go undetected in fields. Grasshoppers have caused serious stand loss in droughty years in particular. Several species hatch from late May through June. Heavy infestations of later instar stage grasshoppers can rapidly cause sugarbeet stand loss in a field.

Flea beetles, wireworms, root aphids, white grubs and beet webworms are less common sugarbeet pests. However, severe localized infestations of these pests occur. White grubs and wireworm may cause serious stand loss to germinating and emerging beet seedlings. Flea beetles occasionally cause some stand loss if insect populations are high. Root aphids may cause severe yield loss in dry years, especially when cracks form in the soil providing ready access to secondary plant roots the insects feed on. Sugarbeet webworm outbreaks are very infrequent in the region. Leaf feeding may occasionally justify insecticide treatment.

Wireworms, cutworms and white grubs may be controlled by certain soil applied sugarbeet root maggot insecticides. Check product labels for specific recommendations. Severe cutworm outbreaks usually require a postemergence insecticide application for successful control. Flea beetles and webworms can be successfully controlled with foliar insecticide. No acceptable control measures are available for the root aphid. Crop rotation does not give effective control for any of these insects. The key to a successful insect control program in sugarbeets is timely monitoring of insect populations, followed by recommended insecticide applications when insect populations and crop damage justify pesticide use.

K. Harvesting and Storage:
Sugarbeets are harvested in late September and October. A mechanical defoliator is used to remove all the foliage from the beet root prior to lifting. Removal of all foliage is essential to prevent leaf regrowth in storage piles. Heavy frosts prior to defoliation make proper foliage removal from the beets more difficult. Immediately following defoliation, sugarbeet lifter-loader harvesters pull beets from the soil and load them on trucks. The harvesters remove most of the soil from the beets prior to loading them on trucks. Wet soil conditions greatly slow the harvesting operations and result in higher amounts of dirt clinging to the beets. After the trucks are loaded, the sugarbeets are delivered to piling stations or the factory for storage and processing. Sugarbeet harvesting requires at least two specialized expensive pieces of equipment, the defoliator and the harvester, plus trucks that may be used very little except at sugarbeet harvest.

Storage is primarily on flat unpaved piling grounds provided by the processing company in the factory yard or at outside piling stations. Some storage also may be over forced air ventilation/aeration systems or in climate controlled storage buildings. These specialized piling grounds or buildings minimize the loss of sugar caused by storage rots and root respiration.

VI. Yield Potential:
Sugarbeet yields in Minnesota and North Dakota usually average from 13 to 25 tons/acre under dryland conditions depending on the climate. Less than 1% of the present acreage in Minnesota and North Dakota is irrigated. Yields under irrigation may be 15 to 30% greater. Other crops in rotation often yield less following sugarbeets because of soil water depletion by the sugarbeet crop.

Sugarbeet production requires much more management attention than small grain, soybean, or corn production. Specialized equipment is required for sugarbeets that can not be used for other crops in rotation.

VII. Economics of Production and Markets:
Market access may be the greatest obstacle facing farmers who want to begin sugarbeet production in North Dakota, Minnesota or Wisconsin. All present processing facilities are operating at full capacity as farmer- owned cooperatives. If increased acreage becomes available at these factories, the present grower owners have first opportunity to grow these sugarbeets. A new grower must purchase an existing contract or shares owned in the cooperative by a present sugarbeet grower in order to market sugarbeets.

No new processing facilities have been built in the United States since 1975. Estimated cost to build an average size processing facility today is $100 million.

Average economic returns from sugarbeets in the region have been greater than for small grains, corn, dry edible beans and soybeans. Prices paid for sugarbeets also have been more stable than for most other crops. While return per acre from sugarbeets may be good, risk of economic loss is also greater than with most other crops. Average total cost of production in Minnesota and North Dakota in 1989 was from $492 to $557 per acre. Cost of production for a new grower starting sugarbeet production would probably exceed $600 per acre.

No one should attempt to initiate sugarbeet production on their farm without securing a market for his crop and completing an economic feasibility study.

VIII. Information Sources:

Sugarbeet Research and Extension Reports. Volume I to 20. North Dakota State University and University of Minnesota Extension Services.

Sugarbeet Production Guide. 1990 and 1991. North Dakota State University and University of Minnesota Extension Services.

Sugarbeet Insects. Nov. 1988. North Dakota State University Extension Service, Fargo, ND.

Insects Affecting Sugarbeets in North Dakota. Circular E-695. North Dakota State University Extension Service.

Sugarbeet Diseases of the North Central United States. NCR Extension Publication #140, Feb. 1981. North Dakota State University and University of Minnesota Extension Services.

Cercospora Leafspot of Sugarbeets. Revised OCL 1987. North Dakota State University Extension Service. PP-764.

Sugarbeet Powdery Mildew. Dec. 1988. North Dakota State University Extension Service. PP-967.

Seedling and Root Rot Diseases of Sugarbeets. 1989. Ag-FO-3702. University of Minnesota Extension Service.

Fertilizing Sugarbeets. Sept. 1988. SF-714 Revised. North Dakota State University Extension Service.

Compendium of Beet Diseases and Insects. American Phytopathological Society Series. St. Paul, MN.

Pests, Diseases and Disorders of the Sugarbeet. The Beet Sugar Development Foundation. Denver, CO.

Gunung Kinabalu

At 4093.4 meters, most people claimed that Gunung Kinabalu is the highest mountain in South East Asia. Even the British television claimed that it is the highest, quoted during the 1997 Kinabalu International Climbathon televised preview, where they've got the top three places. But what about Puncak Jaya (mostly known as Carstenz Pyramid) and Naga Pulu? Both of them in Indonesia's Irian Jaya and still in South East Asia. I know that there are misleading statements about the height Carstenz Pyramid, but I've assumed it to be 4884 meter and the height of Naga Pulu as 4862 meter. Therefore, I assumed that Gunung Kinabalu is not the highest in South East Asia.


Aerial view of Mount Kinabalu at dawn

And some people claimed that Kinabalu International Climbathon is the toughest climbathon in the world. I doubt that. Have anyone ever seen the Tahan Climbathon? How many people are injured, got lost, and even died in such a climbathon. In Malaysia alone, I think Tahan Climbathon is much tougher than the Kinabalu Climbathon.

Nevertheless, climbers to Kinabalu will still be amazed by this one of the highest and most impressive mountains in the Pacific. This mountain is an igneous intrusion, not large by some standards, but impressive in that it rises so high and all alone. The top-most part is somewhat of a plateau, with a number of pinnacles rising from the granite surface.


Mesilau Pinnacles on the eastern ridge of Mount Kinabalu

Gunung Kinabalu has been a major attraction in Malaysia, for people who wants to feel the adventure or just want to enjoy the cool refreshing air. Every year hundreds of thousands of people from all over the world come to Malaysia, just to go to this amazing place. It is believed that Kinabalu Park has one of the richest floras in the world.

Gunung Kinabalu is also popular for its Low's Gully. In February, 1994, a party of ten British and Hong Kong soldiers, under Lieutenant Colonel Robert Neill, attempted to penetrate the the impenetrable, forbidden place. From the beginning, the expedition was ripped apart by personality clashes, suspicion and elitism, as if the gully exerted an evil influence on the intruders from the start. What was to be an adventure of a lifetime, became a journey into hell. The villagers surrounding Mount Kinabalu believe the mysterious Low's Gully in the center of the mountain is inhabited by the spirits of their dead. It is a forbidden place they never dared enter.The few others who had dared never returned. Hemmed in by impenetrable jungle and strewn with gigantic boulders and huge waterfalls, the gully can be reached only by climbing the 14,000-foot mountain and then descending into the unknown.

Possums

A pesky pest

There are about 30 million possums in New Zealand - that's about 7 per person! Possums will munch through around 9,000 tonnes of leaves, berries and fruit every night.

Possums are not native to New Zealand.

•The first possums were brought to New Zealand in 1837 from Australia.
•Possums are native to Australia and are protected there.
•Many trees in Australia have possum defences such as spines, prickles or poisonous leaves – ours don’t!
•Possums in Australia have a lot more parasites, and more predators than in New Zealand.
In New Zealand possums have no natural enemies. That is why possum numbers increased so fast. The possum is not protected in New Zealand, it is a pest. The possum is doing a lot of damage to the native plants, animals and birds.

So why did people bring possums to New Zealand?
Possums were brought to New Zealand to start a fur industry. At the height of the fur trade, trappers killed 20 million possums in a year. But that did not make much of a dent in possum numbers. Possum numbers can build up quickly because every mother possum has a baby each year.

People didn't realise the harm possums would cause to the forest and the wildlife would be much greater than any value their fur provided!

Possums like to eat the juicy new growth on trees - it is very hard for the tree to grow when all of its new growth is being eaten. In New Zealand forests possums will go back to the same tree night after night, eating the tree to death. They love eating our native trees such as our pohutukawa, rata, totara, kowhai and kohekohe.

Because possums are eating native trees they are eating the food of New Zealand native birds - this is not good for the birds.

Possums are home-wreckers. Not only do they literally eat the homes of native birds, (i,.e the trees), they will eat the eggs and chicks of our native birds. What’s more they have been known to push kiwi out of their burrows so they can have a dry place to sleep!

These pests can also be a problem for farmers too. Possums can spread a disease called 'bovine tuberculosis' to cows, cattle and deer. If the farmer's animals get tuberculosis they will get get a bad cough, and become weak. They may even die.Possums are noisy creatures. Did you know that a possum can make 22 vocal sounds. They do screeches, grunts, hisses, chatters, zook-zook, squeaks and clicks. Take a listen for yourself(see above)

These pictures show the damage possums can do.



The tree was being eaten to death by possums, that's why it looks like it is dying in the picture on the left - that was before the possum control!

Two years later, after the possums were killed the tree was healthy again - that's it on the right with all its new leaves. Both pictures show the same tree.

War on possums!
In the 1940s, New Zealand declared war on possums.

Millions of dollars have been spent trying to get rid of possums to protect the New Zealand environment from possum destruction since.....

•DoC staff have also been busy getting rid of possums in New Zealand's national parks and conservation land through baiting and trapping.
•Farmers, conservationists regional councils, land owners and businesses have also been working hard by setting traps and laying bait to kill possums.
•The staff at the Department of Conservation and Landcare have been doing research about possums to learn the best ways to kill them or stop them from having babies.

How The Brain Works

It's important to understand the complexity of the human brain. The human brain weighs only three pounds but is estimated to have about 100 billion cells. It is hard to get a handle on a number that large (or connections that small). Let's try to get an understanding of this complexity by comparing it with something humans have created--the entire phone system for the planet. If we took all the phones in the world and all the wires (there are over four billion people on the planet), the number of connections and the trillions of messages per day would NOT equal the complexity or activity of a single human brain. Now let's take a "small problem"--break every phone in Michigan and cut every wire in the state. How long would it take for the entire state (about 15 million people) to get phone service back? A week, a month, or several years? If you guessed several years, you are now beginning to see the complexity of recovering from a head injury. In the example I used, Michigan residents would be without phone service while the rest of the world had phone service that worked fine. This is also true with people who have a head injury. Some parts of the brain will work fine while others are in need of repair or are slowly being reconnected.

AN ELECTRICAL AND CHEMICAL MACHINE

Let's start looking at the building blocks of the brain. As previously stated, the brain consists of about 100 billion cells. Most of these cells are called neurons. A neuron is basically an on/off switch just like the one you use to control the lights in your home. It is either in a resting state (off) or it is shooting an electrical impulse down a wire (on). It has a cell body, a long little wire (the "wire" is called an axon), and at the very end it has a little part that shoots out a chemical. This chemical goes across a gap (synapse) where it triggers another neuron to send a message. There are a lot of these neurons sending messages down a wire (axon). By the way, each of these billions of axons is generating a small amount of electrical charge; this total power has been estimated to equal a 60 watt bulb. Doctors have learned that measuring this electrical activity can tell how the brain is working. A device that measures electrical activity in the brain is called an EEG (electroencephalograph).

Each of the billions of neurons "spit out" chemicals that trigger other neurons. Different neurons use different types of chemicals. These chemicals are called "transmitters" and are given names like epinephrine, norepinephrine, or dopamine. Pretty simple, right? Well, no. Even in the simplified model that I'm presenting, it gets more complex.

IS THE BRAIN ONE BIG COMPUTER?

Is the brain like a big phone system (because it has a lot of connections) or is it one big computer with ON or OFF states (like the zeros and ones in a computer)? Neither of the above is correct.

Let's look at the brain using a different model. Let's look at the brain as an orchestra. In an orchestra, you have different musical sections. There is a percussion section, a string section, a woodwind section, and so on. Each has its own job to do and must work closely with the other sections. When playing music, each section waits for the conductor. The conductor raises a baton and all the members of the orchestra begin playing at the same time playing on the same note. If the drum section hasn't been practicing, they don't play as well as the rest of the orchestra. The overall sound of the music seems "off" or plays poorly at certain times. This is a better model of how the brain works. We used to think of the brain as a big computer, but it's really like millions of little computers all working together.

GETTING INFORMATION IN AND OUT OF THE BRAIN

How does information come into the brain? A lot of information comes in through the spinal cord at the base of the brain. Think of a spinal cord as a thick phone cable with thousands of phone lines. If you cut that spinal cord, you won't be able to move or feel anything in your body. Information goes OUT from the brain to make body parts (arms and legs) do their job. There is also a great deal of INCOMING information (hot, cold, pain, joint sensation, etc.). Vision and hearing do not go through the spinal cord but go directly into the brain. That’s why people can be completely paralyzed (unable to move their arms and legs) but still see and hear with no problems.

Information enters from the spinal cord and comes up the middle of the brain. It branches out like a tree and goes to the surface of the brain. The surface of the brain is gray due to the color of the cell bodies (that's why it's called the gray matter). The wires or axons have a coating on them that's colored white (called white matter).

We have two eyes, two hands, and two legs, so why not two brains? The brain is divided in half, a right and left hemisphere. The right hemisphere does a different job than the left. The right hemisphere deals more with visual activities and plays a role in putting things together. For example, it takes visual information, puts it together, and says "I recognize that--that's a chair," or "that's a car" or "that's a house." It organizes or groups information together. The left hemisphere tends to be the more analytical part; it analyzes information collected by the right. It takes information from the right hemisphere and applies language to it. The right hemisphere "sees" a house, but the left hemisphere says, "Oh yeah, I know whose house that is--it's Uncle Bob's house."

So what happens if one side of the brain is injured? People who have an injury to the right side of the brain "don't put things together" and fail to process important information. As a result, they often develop a "denial syndrome" and say "there's nothing wrong with me." For example, I treated a person with an injury to the right side of the brain--specifically, the back part of the right brain that deals with visual information--and he lost half of his vision. Because the right side of the brain was injured, it failed to "collect" information, so the brain did not realize that something was missing. Essentially, this person was blind on one side but did not know it. What was scary was that this person had driven his car to my office. After seeing the results of the tests that I gave him, I asked, "Do you have a lot of dents on the left side of your car?" He was amazed that I magically knew this without seeing his car. Unfortunately, I had to ask him not to drive until his problems got better. But you can see how the right side puts things together.

The left side of the brain deals more with language and helps to analyze information given to the brain. If you injure the left side of the brain, you're aware that things aren't working (the right hemisphere is doing its job) but are unable to solve complex problems or do a complex activity. People with left hemisphere injuries tend to be more depressed, have more organizational problems, and have problems using language.

VISION--HOW WE SEE THINGS

Information from our eyes goes to areas at the very back of the brain. We've all seen cartoons where the rabbit gets hit on the head and the rabbit sees stars. This can actually happen in human beings (trust me, not a good thing to do at home!). If you take a hard enough blow to the back of the head, this brain area bangs against back of your skull. This stimulates it and you can see stars and flashing lights. Remember those two hemispheres? Each hemisphere processes half the visual information. Visual information that we see on the left gets processed by the right hemisphere. Information on the right gets processed by the left hemisphere. Remember, wires that bring in information to the brain are "crossed"--visual information from the left goes to the right brain.

MOVEMENT

The area of the brain that controls movement is in a very narrow strip that goes from near the top of the head right down along where your ear is located. It's called the motor strip. If I injure that area, I'll have problems controlling half of my body. If I have a stroke in the left hemisphere of my brain, the right side of the body will stop working. If I have an injury to my right hemisphere in this area, the left side of my body stops working (remember, we have two brains). This is why one half of the face may droop when a person has had a stroke.

HEARING AND LANGUAGE

In the general population, 95 percent of people are right-handed, which means that the left hemisphere is the dominant hemisphere. (For you left-handers, the right hemisphere is dominant.) With right-handed people, the ability to understand and express language is in this left temporal lobe. If I were to take a metal probe, and charge it with just a bit of electricity, and put it on the "primary" area of my left temporal lobe, I might say "hey, I hear a tone." If I move this probe to a more complex area of the temporal lobe, I might hear a word being said. If I move the electrical probe to an even more complex area, I might hear the voice of somebody I recognize; "I hear Uncle Bob's voice." We have simple areas of the temporal lobe that deal with basic sounds and other areas of the temporal lobe that look at more complex hearing information.

The right temporal lobe also deals with hearing. However, its job is to process musical information or help in the identification of noises. If this area is damaged, we might not be able to appreciate music or be able to sing. Because we tend to think and express in terms of language, the left temporal lobe is more critical for day-to-day functioning.

The vision areas and the hearing areas of the brain have a boundary area where they interact. This is the area of the brain that does reading. We take the visual images and convert them into sounds. So if you injure this area (or it doesn't develop when you are very young), you get something called dyslexia. People who have dyslexia have problems that may include seeing letters backwards or have problems understanding what written words mean.

SKIN SENSATION

If something lands on my left hand, this information will be transmitted to the right side of my brain. It goes to the area of the brain next to the area that deals with movement. The tactile area of the brain deals with physical sensation. Movement and feeling are closely related, so it makes sense that they are next to each other in the brain. Because movement and tactile areas are located close to each other, it is not uncommon for people with a brain injuries to lose both movement and feeling in parts of their body. Remember--tactile information from the left side of the body goes to the right brain, just like movement and vision.

FRONTAL LOBES--Planning, Organizing, Controlling

The biggest and most advanced part of the brain is the frontal lobe. (It's called the frontal lobe because it's in the front part of brain.) One job of the frontal lobe is planning. You have probably heard of "frontal lobotomies." At the turn of the century, this surgery was done on people who were very violent or who were in a psychiatric hospital because they were very agitated. Doctors used surgery to damage this area of the brain. Following this surgery, people became very passive and less violent. At first, scientists saw this as a great thing. Neurosurgery could stop behavioral problems such as violence. The problem was that the patients stopped doing a lot of other things. They didn't take care of themselves and they stopped many activities of daily living. They basically sat there. In head injury, individuals with frontal lobe impairment seem to lack motivation and have difficulty doing any task that requires multiple steps (e.g., fixing a car or planning a meal). They have problems with planning.

The frontal lobe is also involved in organizing. For a lot of activities, we need to do step A, then step B, then step C. We have to do things in order. That's what the frontal lobes help us do. When the frontal lobe is injured, there is a breakdown in the ability to sequence and organize. A common example is people who cook and leave out a step in the sequence. They forget to add an important ingredient or they don't turn the stove off. I've met a lot of patients who've burned or melted a lot of pans.

Additionally, the frontal lobes also play a very important role in controlling emotions. Deep in the middle of the brain are sections that control emotions. They're very primitive emotions that deal with hunger, aggression, and sexual drive. These areas send messages to other parts of the brain to DO SOMETHING. If you're mad, hit something or someone. If you're hungry, grab something and eat it. The frontal lobes "manage" emotions. In general, the frontal lobe has a NO or STOP function. If your emotions tell you to punch your boss, it's the frontal lobes that say "STOP or you are going to lose your job." People have often said to me "a little thing will set me off and I'm really mad." The frontal lobes failed to stop or turn off the emotional system.

On the other hand, we have talked about how the frontal lobes plan activities. The frontal lobes may fail to plan for some types of emotion. For example, sexual interest involves some level of planning or preparation. Without this planning, there is a lack of sexual interest. A lack of planning can also affect the expression of anger. I've had some family members say "You know, the head injury actually improved him, he's not such a hot-head anymore." If you listen very carefully, you're also going to hear "he's not as motivated anymore." Remember, the frontal lobe plans activities as well as controls emotions.

The Star-Storytelling Competition

Join Maybank’s Stories For Our Future storytelling contest, and you could walk away with RM10,000! Register here to take part in the preliminary rounds to be held in four venues across Malaysia (or submit a video online) with the Grand Finale in Kuala Lumpur on 27 November, 2010. Just download and choose from any of the four stories below. Then start practising, practising, practising! You can act out the story, sing it, dance to it or put on your most outrageous costume to recreate your favourite story for our judges. You can be a friendly bird or a naughty boy, a forest giant or a tiny raindrop, a frog or even a wobbly piece of jelly. If our judges like your version best, you could be rich and famous, too!

RULES
This competition is open to all Malaysians between the ages of 7 – 12 years old.
There are two categories:
Category A – Lower Primary (7- 9 years) and
Category B – Upper Primary (10 – 12 years).
Preliminary rounds will be held in four cities across Malaysia with the Grand Finale at The Star Kids Fair, Kuala Lumpur.
All participants are required to register via thestar.com.my/kidsfair2010
There will be a maximum of 100 contestants per location. You have to register first. Walk-ins are not allowed.
If you can’t make it to the roadshows, you can also submit your entry online. Just upload a 3 minute video of your performance here.
Two finalists (per category) will be selected from each location with another two (per category) form the online submissions.
The judging will be based on
- Language Proficiency – 40%
- Delivery of Story – 35%
- Interpretation of Story – 15%
- Costume Dressing & Props – 10%
Each contestant must complete the story within 3 minutes. Contestants who exceed this time limit will be subjected to demerit points of 1 point for every 30 seconds beyond the time frame.
Both Bahasa Malaysia & English can be used.
Judges’ decisions are final and no correspondence will be entertained.
All finalists will also receive a copy of Maybank Stories For Our Future storybook and a 1-year free subscription to Kuntum.
All winners are required to open a Maybank Yippie Savings Account as the cash prizes will be deposited into the account.

TERMS & CONDITIONS
This contest is only open to Malaysian citizens residing in the country.
To qualify for a prize, however, a contestant must be a registered MyStar user who has provided valid personal information. (ie. New IC number and name as appears on the IC)
Participant is only entitled to one prize.
Prizes are not transferable and the organiser reserves the right to substitute the prizes for others of equal value.
Staff of Malayan Banking Berhad, Star Publications (M) Berhad and their immediate family members are not allowed to participate.
The judges' decision is final and no correspondence will be entertained.
The winners will be notified either by phone or email at the end of all roadshows.
The winners' names will be published in thestar.com.my/kidsfair2010/ one week before the final event.
Maybank reserves the right to use the submitted videos for advertising, promotional and publicity purposes without further notice.
For further information, please visit thestar.com.my/kidsfair2010/sfof.asp

Mountain Lions

Mountain lions are the largest species of the cat family found in North America. They weigh from 90 to 200 pounds, with an average of 110 pounds. They are about 6 feet long including their tail.



Mountain lions are carnivorous. That means that they eat meat. They eat small animals, deer and elk. Sometimes they also eat cattle, sheep and horses.



They are very secretive and hard to find. They are usually found in brushy and rocky areas. They are very territorial. These animals are beautiful but they can be very dangerous. Be very very careful if you go into their territory.



There are about 1,500 to 2,000 mountain lions in Colorado.

Madinah

This year, as they have for more than fourteen centuries, Muslims from across the world performed the Hajj, the pilgrimage to the Holy Mosque in Makkah. The standing at Arafat, the most important day of the Hajj, fell on April 6. Although the rituals of the Hajj are exclusively performed in and around Makkah, most of the more than two million Muslims who complete them also undertake a pilgrimage to Madinah.


The Prophet's Mosque dominates the Madinah skyline. King Fahd, who oversaw the latest expansion of the mosque, wrote an inscription on the base of the last of the 23-foot brass crescents that top its six new minarets

For the world's more than one billion Muslims, the Hajj is one of the five pillars of Islam. It is the spiritual high point of a Muslim's life to visit the Ka'abah, the House of God, in the Holy Mosque, towards which Muslims around the globe face to pray five times a day. On the other hand, Muslims are drawn to Madinah, not as a religious duty as in the case of Makkah, but out of love and respect for God's last Prophet. For it is in this city that the Prophet Muhammad established the first Islamic community, spent the last years of his life, and where he and many of his companions are buried.

Known by more than 90 names that generally denote respect and devotion, the city is most commonly called Madinah (city), short for Madinah Al-Nabi (City of the Prophet) or Al-Madinah Al-Munawwarah (the Radiant or Enlightened City), a reference to its association with the Prophet.

Although Madinah came to prominence with the introduction of Islam, its roots date back hundreds of years into the pre-Islamic era when it was known as Yathrib. Situated on a plain with aquifers fed by runoff from the surrounding hills, the city had abundant water supplies that fed vast date palms and vegetable gardens. The availability of food and water made Madinah an important reprovisioning point for caravans that plied the commercial routes from the southern part of the Arabian Peninsula along the Red Sea to Syria and Egypt. Its inhabitants sold food to these passing caravans and, over time, became involved in trade.

Yathrib may have languished in relative anonymity were it not for events that took place in Makkah, more than 200 miles to the south, at the turn of the seventh century AD. What was taking place in Makkah would not only transform Yathrib, but also much of the known world.

Unlike Yathrib and other oasis settlements that relied on agriculture, Makkah's primary significance was as a pilgrimage site. Large numbers of people visited the Ka'abah, the House of God built by the Prophet Abraham. However, at this time monotheism had been swept aside, and the Ka'abah housed numerous idols belonging to the inhabitants of Makkah and nearby tribes.

It was against this backdrop that the Prophet Muhammad was born in 570 AD in Makkah and received the first verses of the Holy Qur'an in the year 610. Based on the worship of God, the absolute and single Creator, Islam rejected the idolatry that was prevalent in Makkah at the time. As such, Islam was viewed as a threat to the livelihood and power base of the ruling tribe of Makkah, and its growing number of followers were harassed, persecuted and threatened.

During this period, leaders of Yathrib, familiar with the Prophet Muhammad's reputation for honesty and sincerity, had sent envoys asking that he mediate a dispute between two powerful tribes. Impressed by the Prophet's character and teachings, these envoys soon accepted Islam and were followed by other converts. Observing the growing threat to their fellow Muslims in Makkah, the people of Yathrib offered a safe haven to them, and beginning in 620 AD, the Prophet Muhammad started sending groups of Muslims to live in Yathrib.

Having learned of a plot to murder him, the Prophet Muhammad himself left Makkah for Yathrib, arriving in the city in September 622. This event is known as the Hijrah (emigration). The Prophet's arrival in Yathrib was a turning point in world history. It marked the establishment of the first Islamic state and the rapid growth of the new faith. From then on, the city became Madinah Al-Nabi, and the date of the Prophet's arrival there marked the first year of the Islamic calendar.


The second-holiest site in Islam, the Prophet's Mosque in Madinah contains the chamber in which the Prophet Muhammad is buried.

With the emigration, Madinah became a center of activity. Upon his approach to the oasis in 622, the Prophet established the first mosque in Islam at Quba, a village on the outskirts of Madinah. Called Masjid Al-Taqwa (Mosque of Piety), the mosque still stands, albeit modernized and enlarged.

Once settled in Madinah, the Prophet built another mosque adjacent to his house. Called Masjid Al-Nabawi (the Prophet's Mosque), the first structure on today's site was a simple one supported by the trunks of standing palm trees, and was built by the Prophet himself. It was this mosque at which the Prophet and his companions prayed, and which soon became the social and economic center of the city and the Islamic state. With the growth of Islam, more mosques were established throughout the city and its environs.

The first eight years of the Hijrah were spent strengthening the ummah (Islamic community) in Madinah and in warding off the aggression of the armies sent from Makkah. In the eighth year of the Hijrah, 630 AD, the Prophet and his followers entered Makkah without bloodshed. He ordered the removal of all idols from the Ka'abah, and within weeks all inhabitants of Makkah had accepted Islam. He returned to Makkah in 632 for his final pilgrimage, the rituals of which are followed by all Muslims who have since performed the Hajj.

While the Holy Mosque in Makkah was the spiritual center of Islam, Madinah became the administrative hub of the new Islamic state during the Prophet Muhammad's lifetime. It was from here that the successful campaign to convince the tribes to abandon idolatry was waged.

It was also in Madinah that the Prophet's companions compiled the verses of the Holy Qur'an and collected the Hadith (teachings and sayings of the Prophet) that would serve as the basis of Shari'ah (Islamic law).

And it was also in Madinah that the Prophet died on June 8, 632, and where he was buried in his house adjoining the mosque he had helped build with his own hands.


The Quba Mosque (left) and the Qiblatain Mosque (right) are two of the oldest in the world.

After his death, the first three caliphs, Abu Bakr Al-Siddiq, Omar Ibn Al-Khattab and Othman Ibn Affan, continued to administer from Madinah the expanding Islamic nation, which had by now spread to Persia and Syria. In time, Abu Bakr and Omar were buried in a separate chamber next to the Prophet. Othman and several members of the Prophet's immediate family were buried at the nearby Baqi' Cemetery.

The administrative and political demands of a growing empire, one that over the next hundred years would reach from Spain and Morocco in the west through the Middle East, to the Indian Subcontinent and beyond in the east, forced subsequent Islamic leaders to move their capital away from Madinah.

Although its political and commercial fortunes declined in the following centuries, the City of the Prophet continued to hold a special place in the hearts of Muslims. The small mosque the Prophet had established next to his house was enlarged by various Muslim rulers over time and continued to draw pilgrims from around the world as Islam's second holiest site.

Yet the instability and turmoil that had gripped the Arabian Peninsula in recent centuries made the pilgrimage to Makkah and Madinah a demanding and often dangerous undertaking, with the result that the number of Muslims visiting the holy sites each year seldom exceeded 40,000, even into the early part of this century.

In 1926 a defining event took place that made the City of the Prophet more accessible to Muslims and also changed the fortunes of its inhabitants. In that year, King Abdul Aziz Ibn Abdul Rahman Al-Saud extended his protection to Makkah and Madinah in his effort to unify the tribes of the Arabian Peninsula. In 1932 he accomplished his goal and founded the modern Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.

King Abdul Aziz's rule brought an immediate end to the turmoil and instability that prevailed in the peninsula. For the first time in 13 centuries, pilgrims and merchants could travel safely to the holy cities and, indeed, anywhere else in the Kingdom, without concern for their lives and property.

As the Kingdom entered a new era of development, which began after the end of World War II, it started building roads, ports and airports throughout the country, further facilitating travel to Makkah and Madinah.

With the attention lavished by King Abdul Aziz and his successors on the holy cities, Madinah blossomed, undergoing a veritable transformation. Whereas once only the adventurous dared undertake a journey to the city, the trip became safe and secure, and could now be completed with little anxiety. With the arrival of more pilgrims from across Saudi Arabia and the globe King Abdul Aziz realized that the Prophet's Mosque was in dire need of expansion.

The original mosque, built with mud bricks and tree trunks in 622, covered an area of 8,661 square feet. The caliphs Omar and Othman expanded the mosque in 638 and 650, respectively. Further expansions were undertaken in the early and late parts of the eighth century AD. By this time, the rooms in which the Prophet and his companions Abu Bakr and Omar were buried were incorporated into the mosque and a dome had been built over the rooms.

For eleven centuries no major additional improvements were made to the mosque, although various Muslim rulers funded renovation work and endowments for the mosque's operations and upkeep. The last expansion before the modern era was completed in 1849 by Sultan Abdul Majid the Second, bringing the mosque's total area to a little more than 120,000 square feet.

In 1950, Saudi Arabia undertook the largest expansion project the mosque had ever witnessed. It more than doubled the size of the complex to accommodate the ever-increasing number of Muslims visiting the site, which grew steadily year by year, reaching more than 100,000 in 1955.

The establishment of a modern infrastructure and improved accommodations for visitors saw the number of pilgrims to Makkah and Madinah increase rapidly beginning in the 1960s. By 1970, the number of pilgrims had reached one million. In 1973, King Faisal Ibn Abdul Aziz ordered that the west side of the mosque be shaded from the sun. Although this project increased the area in which visitors to the mosque could pray, it was only a temporary solution.

A more permanent arrangement for the mosque was needed. A panel of experts headed by the Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques King Fahd Ibn Abdul Aziz launched a three-year study to formulate plans for a major expansion of the mosque. Once the plans were approved and preparations completed, construction began in earnest in 1985.

The project would take seven years of continuous work. Once completed in 1992, it expanded the mosque's area approximately 15-fold to 1.78 million square feet, allowing more than 700,000 visitors to pray simultaneously.

A similar expansion project for the Holy Mosque in Makkah, undertaken concurrently with that for the Prophet's Mosque, more than doubled its size, allowing more than one million worshippers. The implementation of these two projects would cost more than 70 billion Saudi riyals (18.66 billion U.S. dollars).

The expansion project for the Prophet's Mosque involved new buildings on three sides of the existing structure, and a vast courtyard surrounding it paved with marble and inlaid with geometric Islamic designs. The new buildings provide extensive roofed prayer areas. Within the new structure there are also 27 courtyards open to the sky. In inclement weather concrete domes slide into place to cover these courtyards. Two larger, open courtyards each have six mechanized, retractable umbrellas that are opened or closed depending on the weather.



Retractable umbrellas (top) and domes (above) in the Prophet's Mosque are opened or closed electronically depending on the weather.

The retractable domes and umbrellas, as well as the other electrical and mechanical systems in the complex, are monitored and controlled from the computerized automation center in the basement. This center also controls the air conditioning system, one of the largest and most innovative of its kind. Located at a plant 4.3 miles away, the system pumps 17,000 gallons of chilled water per minute through pipes into the basement of the mosque, where it is used to cool air circulating throughout the complex.

The expansion project added six new minarets to the mosque's four existing ones. Each of the new minarets is 360 feet high, topped by a 23-foot brass crescent weighing close to five tons.

Several kinds of marble and granite were used to build the vast, open courtyard plaza that surrounds the new structure. Lights mounted on marble and brass pillars illuminate the entire area at night.

With the completion of the expansion project, the Prophet's Mosque can easily accommodate the more than two million worshippers that congregate around the Hajj season and visit throughout the year.

As the mosque has expanded in recent decades, so has the city that surrounds it. The City of the Prophet is no longer the small town enclosed by walls that it was at the turn of the century. Today, it is a vibrant city of half a million people where the old and the new blend in harmony, complementing each other. The religious and historic sites in and around the city have been preserved and renovated to allow visitors to appreciate their role in the history of the Kingdom and Islam.

At the same time, new amenities and services have been established to facilitate the city's social and physical growth. As Madinah slowly expanded in every direction, the provision of adequate water supplies was a primary concern. The Kingdom addressed this issue not only by tapping the aquifers that have traditionally supplied the city with water, but also by laying massive pipes to bring in water from desalination plants along the Red Sea. These projects have met all the city's water requirements. Furthermore, water recycling has allowed the city to establish more than 60 major parks and playgrounds where residents and their families can relax and take refuge from the heat.



An employee (top) of the King Fahd Holy Qur'an Printing Complex checks a page from the Holy Book prior to publishing. Over the past half century Madinah (above) has been transformed into a modern urban center.

Once only accessible by caravan trails, the city is now an integral part of the network of modern highways and roads that connect all major urban centers in the Kingdom. An airport established seven miles northeast of the city connects the City of the Prophet to other cities in the Kingdom as well as the world.

For the past 14 centuries, Madinah has been a center of learning, attracting Islamic scholars and students from around the world. Today, a vast, modern educational structure consisting of hundreds of elementary, intermediate and secondary schools enrolls the city's young. Moreover, the Islamic University, established in 1966, draws thousands of students from Madinah, other parts of the Kingdom and more than 100 countries around the world.

In 1985, King Fahd inaugurated a unique complex near Madinah. The King Fahd Holy Qur'an Printing Complex was built on over 37 acres of land to produce high-quality copies of the Holy Book in large numbers. Employing some 1,500 scholars, artists and technicians, the facility now produces more than 14 million copies of the Holy Qur'an in Arabic and six other major languages, as well as 200,000 sets of audio cassettes of the Holy Book each year. These are distributed free to visitors to the two holy mosques and are donated to mosques, religious institutions, schools and universities in the Kingdom. Millions of copies of the Holy Qur'an are also donated each year to mosques and Islamic centers throughout the world.

Madinah also boasts a modern health care network of nine major hospitals and 76 health care centers, which provide services to residents as well as religious pilgrims. During the Hajj season, numerous temporary health centers are set up to ensure that permanent facilities are not over- burdened and quality care is available to all in need.

A state-of-the-art telecommunications system that supports both land and mobile telephones, computers and facsimile and telex machines is maintained by the Ministry of Posts, Telegraphs and Telephones for residents and visitors.


An ancient oasis, Madinah continues to cultivate extensive gardens and farms that produce a variety of dates and vegetables.

Like the city itself, Madinah's traditional date farms and vegetable gardens have also prospered. Of the 500 varieties of dates produced in the Kingdom, some 120 are cultivated here. Indeed, some of the most popular varieties, including the Ajwa, are grown primarily in the date groves surrounding the city.

While the lives of the people of Madinah continue to revolve around the Prophet's Mosque, and in the service of its visitors, the city's inhabitants now support a dynamic business and commercial sector. Thousands of new stores and shops have been established in recent decades to cater to the needs of visitors and inhabitants alike.

In the latter part of the twentieth century, Madinah has evolved into a modern urban center while retaining its strong religious and cultural values.