So I am waking up at 5am to get the airport. I am flying from Seattle to San Francisco, and then onto Shanghai. I still have to start packing....
I don't plan on bringing that much stuff. Just my basic necessities and enough clothes to hold me over until I can go shopping. I learned from my mistake last time when my purse got stolen. So I am just bringing one duffel bag as a carry-on. I am keeping everything with me and nothing leaves my sight!! Am I slightly a control freak? Maybe. Overly paranoid? I don't think so.
On the other hand, I am bringing SO much, but not in the material sense, though. I am bringing my knowledge of travel and the Chinese culture/language. I am going to China with confidence that I can teach English and do the research I need to do for my capstone. I have memories of past experiences and places. With me are connections all over China, whether it is with friends, teachers, and strangers (soon to be friends)! No thief can take my passion away from me. And I can't check my hopes and dreams at the gate. Finally, and most importantly, I take with me the Holy Spirit, my faith, and protection from my heavenly father than transcends all security lines, border control, and language barriers. Yep, I'm pretty much set.
Tuesday, July 6, 2010
Tuesday, January 19, 2010
Sunday, August 9, 2009
The Worst Summer Ever
Hello everyone,
So I would like to tell everyone about my worst summer ever! I am going back to PLU next week and I cannot believe how fast this summer has flown by, yet how tedious it has been at the same time.
To start out, when I visited my grandma (Mom's mom) in May, she seemed perfectly normal. When she went into the doctor, they found spots on her liver. By the time she had her biopsy, the prognosis didn't look good. Simultaneously, my other grandma had a series of mini strokes. My dad immediately flew down to San Antonio to be with her. A week after my dad got back home, my mom's mom passed away. This was the first time I had to say goodbye to a close family member. It was really hard for everyone, especially my parents. I feel bad for my Dad because he had to look death in the face twice. Here is my letter I wrote to Grandma a couple days before she died. It expresses so much more than I can possibly say in this blog:
Dear Grandma,
It is beyond doubt that God cannot be fathomed. With that being said, I cannot fathom how God created us in His image. In some regards, it is very obvious that he has a sense of humor! I'm talking about the little things, here. Take noses, for instance. I have always wondered why God would create these funny little things we carry around in the middle of our faces. As incredible as we are, we must still give God credit for the absurd nature of some things he created all of us humans to exhibit...like noses!
In the event of narrating the bizarre synapse firings in my brain, I would also like to touch on the preposterous existence of tears. God created little holes in the folds of our eyes for salt water to seep out. It is in this way that human beings express any form of extreme emotion: sadness, happiness, anger, pride, frustration, joy. Sometimes we even can't even explain why we cry!
Throughout the bible, tears come in many forms. Psalms or Job is a very good place to start...They result from sadness, pleading out of intercession, and injustices, among other things. What all of these have in common is that tears are human beings' external way of demonstrating what is felt on the inside. Tears are things meant to be recognized and acknowledged by the LORD.
Here is just one example in Jeremiah 9:17-20 right after God detests Jerusalem for being consumed by sin and turning away from Him.
This is what the LORD Almighty says: "Consider now! Call for the wailing women to come; send for the most skillful of them. Let them come quickly and wail over us till our eyes overflow with tears and water streams from our eyelids. The sound of wailing is heard from Zion: 'How ruined we are! How great is our shame! We must leave our land because our houses are in ruins.' " Now, O women, hear the word of the LORD; open your ears to the words of his mouth. Teach your daughters how to wail; teach one another a lament.
God called upon the “most skillful” of the wailing women to come and intercede for Jerusalem! According to God, there is a particular way to bring forth a request-- one of which is through tears! Are tears the result of us realizing that we are powerless to change our situation? Did God create tears to be a sign of surrender? I think these questions apply to the very basic, infantile characteristics of being human. All a newborn can do is cry. They are powerless and must rely fully upon someone stronger than his or her self. We attribute negative connotations like "crybaby" to people, especially boys, to whom it is socially unacceptable to cry. In the world's eyes, tears are a sign of sadness, desperation, or helplessness.
In God’s eyes, he sees our tears as a sign that we need Him. Compared to His mighty hand, we are but infants incapable of doing it on our own. The best part about this crazy creation called tears is God's promise about them. He says in Psalm 116:7-9, “Be at rest once more, O my soul, for the LORD has been good to you. For you, O LORD, have delivered my soul from death, my eyes from tears, my feet from stumbling, that I may walk before the LORD in the land of the living.” In our weakness, God reveals his strength.
Without pain and sadness, we cannot know joy. Consider the paradox of love. Almost everyone has been “hurt” by love, yet we could not love if there was no calculated risk involved, no possibility for pain. The hurt we all feel comes from feeling rejected or betrayed by worldly love. However, our desire for love outweighs the risks of being hurt. In the same way, Jesus Christ took the highest risk by bearing the ultimate pain of death on a cross and carried the sin of the world in order to show the greatest form of love. Such a Great Love must be partnered with the choice to reject it. God’s Great Love is contingent upon the individual’s choice to accept it freely, just as he or she can reject it freely. If it was any other way, it wouldn’t be True Love.
In times of sadness and tears, we must not forget that the contrast to our seemingly immense burdens and hardships is a God of love and compassion. He allows us to grieve in order that we can get to the point where we must surrender it all to Him, to allow our “light and momentary troubles to achieve for us an eternal glory that far outweighs them all.” I love you grandma and I would like you to know that, while we may cry tears of sadness on this earth, they reflect a very small fraction of the pain Jesus felt for us because of His amazing Love we will not understand until we are together again.
See you soon,
Your Granddaughter Crystal Swetz
My grandma was blessed in her last moments to be surrounded by people who loved and cared for her. I can only hope that when my time comes, I can be surrounded by people like those who surrounded Grandma.
In addition to coping with my grandma's death, I also decided to sign up for two intensive summer online courses. When the summer started, I thought 'This will be great: I got an awesome job at a bistro, I can totally schedule all my school around my work, I get Sundays off so I can go to church, and I will spend lots of time with my friends.' I even got a YMCA membership because I planned on working out everyday. Don't forget, I also planned on reading for fun. I have such an optomistic fantasy world.
My life this summer has consisted of nothing outside of school and work. I literally wake up early every morning to do biology, get home from work and do more homework until it is time to go to bed. I even brought my homework to the singing camp I was on-staff for, and had to stay up til 2am every night. If I didn't work at a bistro where I could make myself (relatively unlimited) healthy sandwiches and juices from fresh fruit, I know I wouldn't be eating enough. I'm addicted to coffee :-/ I am completely, utterly overwhelmed. I despise biology with every eukaryotic cell of my existance!!! Psychology is cool. For my psych final exam, the review sheet is way too long and would take me forever, except I was smart and decided to divide and conquer with my fellow classmates ;) I am delegator-extraordinaire!
So basically, as I am writing this I am physically and emotionally drained, I haven't worked out in over a week, I haven't done anything I'm supposed to do prepare for my RA job, and I have one more freaking chapter left in a book I started reading before my classes started that I literally haven't had time/energy to finish!! I am surprised that I have the energy to take the time to write this. I would like to apologize to all my friends I have neglected this summer. There is literally no way around all my homework. I made a mistake by taking on two summer courses. I sorry I'm such a lame-O......
On a lighter note, Sarah and I have definitely decided to go to China next summer to teach English. We convinced our family to come too! I can't wait to see my dad try to bargain ;) Pretty much, any summer hereafter will be a step above this one. I have already been accepted by Chinese Culture Center for a summer teaching position!
So here is my high and low: My high is that I am currently getting very good practice in delayed gratification. My low is the all-consuming power that biology 100 has over every moment of my life.
As a side note, I miss Bruce...a lot :( He recently went to "sailor training" in Guangzhou to prepare for an interview this September to be a chef for the Royal Caribbean Cruiselines. If he gets the job, he will come to America and will either be stationed from Miami or SEATTLE!! I am pretty excited that he might get to experience my country :) I hope everything works out and I will get to see him someday relatively soon. Whatever is God's will will happen. Last night I was thinking about how we shouldn't think of our lives as products of our past, but rather as present manifestations of God's will. So, this summer has definitely been a time of growth, reflection, and pain. But it does not come without hope and the excitement that comes with the future.
So I would like to tell everyone about my worst summer ever! I am going back to PLU next week and I cannot believe how fast this summer has flown by, yet how tedious it has been at the same time.
To start out, when I visited my grandma (Mom's mom) in May, she seemed perfectly normal. When she went into the doctor, they found spots on her liver. By the time she had her biopsy, the prognosis didn't look good. Simultaneously, my other grandma had a series of mini strokes. My dad immediately flew down to San Antonio to be with her. A week after my dad got back home, my mom's mom passed away. This was the first time I had to say goodbye to a close family member. It was really hard for everyone, especially my parents. I feel bad for my Dad because he had to look death in the face twice. Here is my letter I wrote to Grandma a couple days before she died. It expresses so much more than I can possibly say in this blog:
Dear Grandma,
It is beyond doubt that God cannot be fathomed. With that being said, I cannot fathom how God created us in His image. In some regards, it is very obvious that he has a sense of humor! I'm talking about the little things, here. Take noses, for instance. I have always wondered why God would create these funny little things we carry around in the middle of our faces. As incredible as we are, we must still give God credit for the absurd nature of some things he created all of us humans to exhibit...like noses!
In the event of narrating the bizarre synapse firings in my brain, I would also like to touch on the preposterous existence of tears. God created little holes in the folds of our eyes for salt water to seep out. It is in this way that human beings express any form of extreme emotion: sadness, happiness, anger, pride, frustration, joy. Sometimes we even can't even explain why we cry!
Throughout the bible, tears come in many forms. Psalms or Job is a very good place to start...They result from sadness, pleading out of intercession, and injustices, among other things. What all of these have in common is that tears are human beings' external way of demonstrating what is felt on the inside. Tears are things meant to be recognized and acknowledged by the LORD.
Here is just one example in Jeremiah 9:17-20 right after God detests Jerusalem for being consumed by sin and turning away from Him.
This is what the LORD Almighty says: "Consider now! Call for the wailing women to come; send for the most skillful of them. Let them come quickly and wail over us till our eyes overflow with tears and water streams from our eyelids. The sound of wailing is heard from Zion: 'How ruined we are! How great is our shame! We must leave our land because our houses are in ruins.' " Now, O women, hear the word of the LORD; open your ears to the words of his mouth. Teach your daughters how to wail; teach one another a lament.
God called upon the “most skillful” of the wailing women to come and intercede for Jerusalem! According to God, there is a particular way to bring forth a request-- one of which is through tears! Are tears the result of us realizing that we are powerless to change our situation? Did God create tears to be a sign of surrender? I think these questions apply to the very basic, infantile characteristics of being human. All a newborn can do is cry. They are powerless and must rely fully upon someone stronger than his or her self. We attribute negative connotations like "crybaby" to people, especially boys, to whom it is socially unacceptable to cry. In the world's eyes, tears are a sign of sadness, desperation, or helplessness.
In God’s eyes, he sees our tears as a sign that we need Him. Compared to His mighty hand, we are but infants incapable of doing it on our own. The best part about this crazy creation called tears is God's promise about them. He says in Psalm 116:7-9, “Be at rest once more, O my soul, for the LORD has been good to you. For you, O LORD, have delivered my soul from death, my eyes from tears, my feet from stumbling, that I may walk before the LORD in the land of the living.” In our weakness, God reveals his strength.
Without pain and sadness, we cannot know joy. Consider the paradox of love. Almost everyone has been “hurt” by love, yet we could not love if there was no calculated risk involved, no possibility for pain. The hurt we all feel comes from feeling rejected or betrayed by worldly love. However, our desire for love outweighs the risks of being hurt. In the same way, Jesus Christ took the highest risk by bearing the ultimate pain of death on a cross and carried the sin of the world in order to show the greatest form of love. Such a Great Love must be partnered with the choice to reject it. God’s Great Love is contingent upon the individual’s choice to accept it freely, just as he or she can reject it freely. If it was any other way, it wouldn’t be True Love.
In times of sadness and tears, we must not forget that the contrast to our seemingly immense burdens and hardships is a God of love and compassion. He allows us to grieve in order that we can get to the point where we must surrender it all to Him, to allow our “light and momentary troubles to achieve for us an eternal glory that far outweighs them all.” I love you grandma and I would like you to know that, while we may cry tears of sadness on this earth, they reflect a very small fraction of the pain Jesus felt for us because of His amazing Love we will not understand until we are together again.
See you soon,
Your Granddaughter Crystal Swetz
My grandma was blessed in her last moments to be surrounded by people who loved and cared for her. I can only hope that when my time comes, I can be surrounded by people like those who surrounded Grandma.
In addition to coping with my grandma's death, I also decided to sign up for two intensive summer online courses. When the summer started, I thought 'This will be great: I got an awesome job at a bistro, I can totally schedule all my school around my work, I get Sundays off so I can go to church, and I will spend lots of time with my friends.' I even got a YMCA membership because I planned on working out everyday. Don't forget, I also planned on reading for fun. I have such an optomistic fantasy world.
My life this summer has consisted of nothing outside of school and work. I literally wake up early every morning to do biology, get home from work and do more homework until it is time to go to bed. I even brought my homework to the singing camp I was on-staff for, and had to stay up til 2am every night. If I didn't work at a bistro where I could make myself (relatively unlimited) healthy sandwiches and juices from fresh fruit, I know I wouldn't be eating enough. I'm addicted to coffee :-/ I am completely, utterly overwhelmed. I despise biology with every eukaryotic cell of my existance!!! Psychology is cool. For my psych final exam, the review sheet is way too long and would take me forever, except I was smart and decided to divide and conquer with my fellow classmates ;) I am delegator-extraordinaire!
So basically, as I am writing this I am physically and emotionally drained, I haven't worked out in over a week, I haven't done anything I'm supposed to do prepare for my RA job, and I have one more freaking chapter left in a book I started reading before my classes started that I literally haven't had time/energy to finish!! I am surprised that I have the energy to take the time to write this. I would like to apologize to all my friends I have neglected this summer. There is literally no way around all my homework. I made a mistake by taking on two summer courses. I sorry I'm such a lame-O......
On a lighter note, Sarah and I have definitely decided to go to China next summer to teach English. We convinced our family to come too! I can't wait to see my dad try to bargain ;) Pretty much, any summer hereafter will be a step above this one. I have already been accepted by Chinese Culture Center for a summer teaching position!
So here is my high and low: My high is that I am currently getting very good practice in delayed gratification. My low is the all-consuming power that biology 100 has over every moment of my life.
As a side note, I miss Bruce...a lot :( He recently went to "sailor training" in Guangzhou to prepare for an interview this September to be a chef for the Royal Caribbean Cruiselines. If he gets the job, he will come to America and will either be stationed from Miami or SEATTLE!! I am pretty excited that he might get to experience my country :) I hope everything works out and I will get to see him someday relatively soon. Whatever is God's will will happen. Last night I was thinking about how we shouldn't think of our lives as products of our past, but rather as present manifestations of God's will. So, this summer has definitely been a time of growth, reflection, and pain. But it does not come without hope and the excitement that comes with the future.
Tuesday, December 23, 2008
Dating and Marriage Norms and Preferences Among Chinese College Students
Every culture has its own influences, expectations, and customs that shape the thoughts and actions of the people influenced. In many instances, it is hard for people from other cultures to understand the motives behind behaviors that are foreign to them. Dating practices are no exception. Are the selection criteria in China similar to those in America? In what ways do expectations and attitudes differ? These are the subjects of consideration as I explore dating norms and preferences in China when choosing a suitable partner. Taking it a step further, I am considering the difference between selection criteria for dating and marriage. For instance, a dating couple may or may not weigh the financial responsibilities when choosing a mate like a couple considering marriage. Breaking it down even further, I aim to discover the different inclinations of both males and females. Furthermore, I am curious about what characteristics couples share in categories such as economic status or religious background.
This topic interests me because love is a universal phenomenon that is embedded into the very fabric of our existence as human beings. If romantic interests were absent from human instinct, then I foresee one of two outcomes. Either the human race would cease to procreate, or sex would be an instinctive, animalistic behavior without the intimate bonding of two people. It is fascinating how different cultures uniquely express the same desire to make procreation more than just a routine, while at the same time placing special value on an individual, even though it is not necessary for reproduction. In China, dating and marriage criteria is of particular interest due to how much the culture has shifted within this past century. From arranged marriages to a generation of agency, this new freedom of choosing a partner has opened the door to a brand new dynamic of life and responsibilities for both dating and marriage potentials alike.
Literature Review
The key to choosing the perfect mate has undoubtedly always been a topic of interest of the human race. Many ponder whether there is a systematic, fool-proof criteria involved in falling in love. Furthermore, it is intriguing how an individual’s culture plays a role in dating and marriage practices. By examining traits used in mate selection, cultural influences, and the difference between dating and marriage criteria, one can begin to reveal the mystery of how love works.
From an evolutionary perspective, men and women look for different traits in the opposite sex. A study conducted by the University of Nebraska showed that “men look for youth and beauty in a partner, while women look for a partner with financial status and likelihood of long-term commitment” (Benz, Anderson, Miller 2005: 305). Furthermore, an art of deception comes into play when trying to impress a potential mate. For instance, it was found that both men and women expected a man to exaggerate how much money he had. On the other hand, women admitted to exaggerating their physical features first and foremost before being deceptive about other characteristics such as economic status and level of education. According to evolutionary theory, A beautiful woman appears to be more capable of child-bearing, while a successful man exhibits resources necessary to provide for a family. The reason for deception is conceivably due to the benefits to gain from being more competitive by exaggerating qualities desirable by the opposite sex. When focusing research strictly on Chinese relations, desired characteristics in both males and females mirrored American studies. Women ranked the job and income of a man as the most important criteria, while men valued good looks only second to class label and political record of a woman (Townsend 1998).
Furthermore, cultural influence impacts the context in which dating is practiced. For instance, data from China suggests that an individual’s status plays a big factor in a culture that has undergone numerous shifts within the past century. John Townsend (1998) makes several noteworthy comments about the development of dating in Chinese culture. First, marriage is legally no longer allowed to be arranged by parents, as was previously practiced in traditional Chinese culture. Also, in a culture where the educational system is based on standardized tests, a beautiful woman may fail the test because she can rely on her good looks to attract a successful man, rather than her level of education. However, during the Cultural Revolution (1966-1976), women married men of lower rather than higher status due to the persecution of intellectual and wealthy individuals. Nevertheless, after the Cultural Revolution, low status could be a deal-breaker when looking for a dating or marriage partner because low status individuals no longer had the advantage over scholars and successful men and women. Even still, by appearing that she can bear healthy children for a man, a woman could make up for what she lacks by being physically attractive. This practice of hypergyny, or “marrying up,” examined in this study appears to be evident throughout Chinese culture.
Further comparison of Western and Chinese societies have found that culture, indeed, seems to be most influential in the development of romantic beliefs, styles, and relationships. When the dating attitudes and behaviors of American and Chinese college students were analyzed, Shenming Tang and Jiping Zuo (2000) found that Chinese students differ greatly from their American counterparts. The results indicated that Chinese culture was more conservative when it came to being in a relationship. In America, (2000) the average age to begin dating was 14.69, while average age in China was 18. Furthermore, 42% of Chinese agree that the main purpose of dating was to find a marriage partner, opposed to 14% of Americans. At the time the survey was conducted, 64% of American college students were dating versus 32% of Chinese college students. This great discrepancy is arguably a result of a more liberal dating culture in America. Parents and high school institutions encourage children to date. Also, students have access to the resources necessary to date including cars and jobs. In China, parents and high school institutions view a child’s education as superior and consider dating to be deviant behavior. Due to such an emphasis on education, having a job is not an option for most students and a car is still considered a luxury for many (Tang and Zuo: 75).
The more conservative culture is an interesting factor that plays into mate selection. Susan M. Moore and C. Leung (2001) conducted a cross-cultural analysis of Chinese living in Australia. The Chinese motivation for dating seems to stem from “a collectivist society [where] romance and love are seen as subordinate to the needs of the group (typically the family), and such activities must be bound by the appropriate and accepted social rules of the group” (2001:55). The factors that influence different dating and marriage criterion is an interesting concept to explore.
When comparing criteria used for selecting a dating partner verses a marriage partner, the standards appear to be lower in dating relationships. In marriage, not only does an individual desire good qualities in a partner, but homogamy, the practice of marrying within a given group through both ascribed and achieved statuses, is desirable as well. A study conducted by Debra L. Blackwell and Daniel T. Lichter (2004) indicates that the amount of shared characteristics increases with the level of commitment. This phenomenon is known as the “winnowing hypothesis” where criteria for a mate becomes stricter as relationships progress in seriousness. Among dating, cohabitating, and married couples, educational homogamy was the most desirable. However, when homogamy was not present, both men and women preferred to ‘date up’ rather than down. The study concludes that “a fair exchange or a ‘good match’ may also be less relevant for short-term relationships (like dating) than for longer or more committed relationships…Indeed the motivations for dating…differ from those for cohabitation…and marriage” (2004: 721).
Understanding love begins by examining the criteria used in mate selection, as well as looking at cultural influences and differences between dating and marriage relationships. Experts in the field of Sociology show that, in the modern dating and marriage world, individuals have a choice with whom they fall in love. At the same time, one’s culture may inadvertently play a role in the choice of dating and marriage partners. Finally, research indicates that standards fluctuate based on the level of commitment in the relationship.
Methods
In order to collect data on attitudes about dating and marriage among Chinese college students, I designed and administered a survey questionnaire. I found this most appropriate data collection method because the information is very standardized, allowing for consistency in an environment unfamiliar to the researcher. As a foreign student, the language barrier presents a challenge to construct clear and unambiguous questions. The questionnaires are uniform, which allows for a consistent form of data collection. Additionally an anonymous questionnaire is an ideal method for data collection because choosing a dating or marriage partner may be a sensitive topic for many Chinese. For instance, due to the One-child Policy, there will be a disproportionate ratio of men to women in the marriage. Since men were favored in traditional family systems as the care providers for their elderly parents, families were more likely to practice female infanticide (Chen 1984) In a society with an unbalanced sex ratio, when men reach marriage-age, choosing a mate may seem daunting or hopeless. Another group of people who may feel disadvantaged in relationships are those who have a disadvantaged background. Money, family life, or personal misfortunes might restrict them to sitting on the bench, while the others are playing the dating game, so to speak. It may be in a face-to-face interview people will be asked personal questions that they do not feel confident answering. An anonymous survey allows people to release such information in a safe way.
One downside to this data collection method is that there is a lack of diversity within the kinds of people participating. All attend a prestigious university and already have an advantageous status in society through their knowledge of English. All of these students are hard-working and have goals for attaining an education. The economic and social status of these college students may not reflect the average range for other college-aged adults. The dynamics of choosing a dating partner may be limited to a narrower point of view and life experience.
The survey was conducted at Sichuan University in Chengdu, China. The questionnaire was distributed to approximately 100 Chinese college-aged students in a single classroom setting, from these I selected questionnaires completed by 25 females and 25 males. Students’ ages range from 18 to 25 years old, with an average age of 21.42 years old. The class is composed of English-speaking Chinese students of a Chinese professor who teaches the Culture and Society class to American students. He was given instructions to keep the survey anonymous and to reiterate that the survey would have no impact on the students’ grade in the class. He could help with language clarification purposes only. The surveys were be returned to the researcher, and the responses were analyzed accordingly to determine what factors Chinese college students find most important for dating and marriage partners. The questionnaire asked students to provide basic background information, answer yes or no questions, as well as rank on a one to five scale, one being the lowest degree and five being the highest degree, the importance of different qualities when searching for either a dating or marriage partner. The answers were then averaged for analytical purposes. My survey takes into account physical attractiveness, level of education, economic and social status, and religion when selecting a mate.
Findings
In the process of analyzing my research, I observed the overall impact of different factors that influence Chinese college students when selecting dating and marriage partners. The criteria considered when choosing a mate include education, social status, religion, physical appearance, economic status, and parents’ opinion of partner. These were measured on a five point scale with 1 signifying “not important” and 5 signifying “very important.” Means were calculated for each scale. Furthermore, I looked at the differences between answers given by men and women.
Looking at the data as a whole for both men and women, the six different factors were averaged and then ranked according to amount of influence in comparison to the other factors. In dating relationships, education was ranked the most important at 3.26, followed by appearance at 3.2, economic status at 2.96, parents’ opinion at 2.8, social status at 2.54, and finally religion at 2.16. In marriage relationships, education was again ranked as most important with an average value of 3.62, followed by parents’ opinion at 3.46, economic status at 3.38, appearance at 3.1, social status at 3.02, and finally religion at 2.62. From dating to marriage relationships, the average value of importance increased in all six categories. This supports the winnowing hypothesis that criteria for selecting a mate narrows as relationships progress (Blackwell and Lichter (2004). However, parents’ opinion was valued over physical appearance in choosing a marriage partner, while the opposite is true for dating partner selection. Because physical appearance is valued over parents’ discretion in dating situations, this data does not necessarily support the traditional Chinese idea that “dating is instrumental in nature, a way by which a suitable marital partner can be found, and a prelude to marriage” (Tang and Zuo 2000: 76). Parents arranging marriages did not give their son or daughter a choice in mate selection, precluding a dating culture altogether. In fact, “marriages in the past were predominantly arranged by parents in which case the couple did not get to know or see each other before marriage” (Kejing 1991). The evidence in this survey demonstrates the shift in Chinese culture. The fact that physical appearance is valued over the parents’ opinion in a dating relationship counters Susan M. Moore and C. Leung’s observation that China is a collectivist society that puts the family before the self.
Next, I analyzed the factors that influence the selection of dating partners for both men and women. When comparing the responses of the sexes, females’ answers indicated education, social status, religion, and economic status were more important factors in finding a dating partner than compared to males’ responses. Males, on the other hand, only value physical appearance and parents’ opinion over female responses. For both men and women, religion was seen as the least important factor when selecting a dating partner. Interestingly, women ranked education as the most important, while men ranked parents’ opinion as most important, both with a value of 3.52. Furthermore, with both the men and women’s second most important factors ranking at an average of 3.4, women value economic status as much as men value physical appearance.
This data suggests that college-aged women in China find education and economic status to be the most important qualities in a potential dating partner, while men value appearance and parents’ approval over all other factors. These findings were supported by the research of Joseph Bena, Mary K. Anderson, and Richard L. Miller (2005) who stated that physical attraction is a sign that women can have healthy babies, while economic status indicates that a man can support a family. Further correlation was noted between the value men and women place on education and physical appearance. Women gave physical appearance an average value of 3, while men equally ranked education with an average of 3. These surprising similarities between women’s value of education and economic status and men’s value of parents’ approval and his partner’s physical appearance respectively are supported by research conducted by sinologists Martin Whyte and William Parish. They interviewed 133 emigrants in Hong Kong and found that, indeed, women primarily value the job and income of a man, while men rank good looks above other qualities (Townsend 1998).
When comparing factors that influence marriage partners, the findings are similar. As a whole, women had higher overall rankings than men in all categories, except for physical appearance. Even though this was the only category where men ranked higher than women, their value placed on appearance from dating to marriage decreased from 3.4 to 3.2. As one of the most important factors in a dating relationship, men place less importance on appearance, valuing it after education and parents’ opinion, when looking for a marriage partner. However, men only ranked education as .08 higher than physical appearance, suggesting that a woman’s education and physical attractiveness are about equal in value. This evidence parallels Townsend’s observation that failing standardized tests is less problematic for beautiful women because they could depend on their looks to attract a successful man (1998). Since both men and women ranked education very high, this supports Blackwell and Lichter’s findings that educational homogamy is the most desirable. Furthermore, women ranked appearance as important as men ranked economic status with an average of 3. From dating to marriage, women’s assessment of physical appearance remained exactly the same. The influence of the females’ parents’ opinion increases when looking for a marriage partner. In contrast, men indicate that their parents’ opinion have less importance in marriage. This discontinuity contradicts cultural influences where “love and romance are considered in the light of responsibility towards parents (Moore and Leung 2001). Again, religion was ranked as the least important factor for both men and women. However, men’s value of his wife’s social status was still lower than the value women gave for religion. For selecting marriage partners, all categories have higher rankings when compared to dating relationships.
Research also focuses on what age females and males find appropriate to begin dating. When asked what age is appropriate to begin dating, the average response for males and females was 16.94 years old. The mean for males was slightly lower at16.8 years. Although twelve of the twenty-five men reported an appropriate age to begin dating between 18 and 20 years old, five men reported ages between 12 and 14, which skewed the average. This data presents a considerably lower age when compared to Tang and Zuo’s research which report an average age of 18 for Chinese to begin dating. Furthermore, over half of the men answered that between 12 and 16 years old is an appropriate time to begin dating, which would permit dating practices in middle school and high school aged students. The current research presents a contradiction to Tang and Zuo’s claim that the Chinese culture values education so highly, that dating is considered deviant behavior. With the average appropriate dating age in America of 14.96, many Chinese men seem more inclined to agree with the American point of view (2000).
The females’ reported age to begin dating, while somewhat closer to past research’s findings, still represents a shift in dating culture. Women reported an average appropriate age to begin dating at 17.08 years old. This apparent decrease in age represents a transition to a younger dating generation. Similar to men, ten of the twenty-five women answered that between 13 and 16 would be an acceptable age to begin dating. The research indicates that dating is beginning to become acceptable during a time when most people do not have the educational or economic level to be self-sufficient. The data seems to shift towards a more relaxed dating culture as also indicated in Blackwell and Lichter’s findings. The researchers state that an equal or favorable exchange is not necessary in dating or short-term relationships. Dating relationships have different agendas when compared to more serious relationships (2004).
Conclusion
Overall, the research conducted on Sichuan University Campus in Chengdu, China has yielded several interesting findings. Dating and marriage criteria, as well as strategies for choosing a mate, all confirm the existing research indicating that certain factors are more important for males and females. Most notably, women value the economic status of a man, while men think physical appearance is very important. From a functionalist standpoint, the evidence from this research combined with outside sources point out that these criteria are influenced by the desire for healthy offspring and a stable life. On the other hand, the biggest discontinuity found is the challenge to traditional Chinese culture that is present in dating partner selection practices. A relaxed dating culture is emerging with a younger dating generation. In addition, the Chinese idea of filial piety derived from Confucianism (Liu 2008) is challenged when the traditional significance of the parents’ opinion is challenged. The averages for both men and women value physical appearance over their parents’ opinion in a dating relationship. This shows a trend in valuing the individual’s desires over those of the family in choosing a dating partner.
An important limitation about the research was the lack of diversity within the given sample. The questionnaire was limited only to a class of students studying economics within a single university in Sichuan province. Due to the prestige of the university, the sample group may not be a good representation of the opinions on dating and marriage partner selection for the entire college-aged Chinese population. Furthermore, the questionnaire asked students to indicate what age they felt was appropriate to begin dating, but did not ask the participants to provide an ideal marriage age. This would have been significant data because the researcher could compare the ages given to previous research findings. In all, the data suggests an interesting trend among the specified survey group.
References
Benz, Joseph J., Mary K. Anderson, and Richard L. Miller. 2005. “Attributions of Deception in Dating Situations.” Psychological Record 55(2): 305-314
Blackwell, Debra L. and Daniel T. Lichter. 2004. “Homogamy Among Dating, Cohabiting, and Married Couples.” The Sociological Quarterly 45(4): 719-737.
Kejinig, Dai. 1991. “The experience and status of Chinese rural women from observation of three age groups.” International Sociology 6(1): 5-23.
Moore, S., C. Leung. 2001. “Romantic beliefs, styles and relationships among young people from Chinese, Southern European, and Anglo-Australian backgrounds.” Asian Journal of Psychology 4: 53.
Tang, Shengming, Zuo Jiping, Tang S.M., Zuo J.P. 2000. “Dating attitudes and behaviors of American and Chinese college students.” The Social Science Journal, 37(1):67-78.
Townsend, John. 1998. “Are Men and Women Alike Around the Globe?” What women want-what men want: why the sexes still see love & commitment so differently. New York: Oxford University Press.
This topic interests me because love is a universal phenomenon that is embedded into the very fabric of our existence as human beings. If romantic interests were absent from human instinct, then I foresee one of two outcomes. Either the human race would cease to procreate, or sex would be an instinctive, animalistic behavior without the intimate bonding of two people. It is fascinating how different cultures uniquely express the same desire to make procreation more than just a routine, while at the same time placing special value on an individual, even though it is not necessary for reproduction. In China, dating and marriage criteria is of particular interest due to how much the culture has shifted within this past century. From arranged marriages to a generation of agency, this new freedom of choosing a partner has opened the door to a brand new dynamic of life and responsibilities for both dating and marriage potentials alike.
Literature Review
The key to choosing the perfect mate has undoubtedly always been a topic of interest of the human race. Many ponder whether there is a systematic, fool-proof criteria involved in falling in love. Furthermore, it is intriguing how an individual’s culture plays a role in dating and marriage practices. By examining traits used in mate selection, cultural influences, and the difference between dating and marriage criteria, one can begin to reveal the mystery of how love works.
From an evolutionary perspective, men and women look for different traits in the opposite sex. A study conducted by the University of Nebraska showed that “men look for youth and beauty in a partner, while women look for a partner with financial status and likelihood of long-term commitment” (Benz, Anderson, Miller 2005: 305). Furthermore, an art of deception comes into play when trying to impress a potential mate. For instance, it was found that both men and women expected a man to exaggerate how much money he had. On the other hand, women admitted to exaggerating their physical features first and foremost before being deceptive about other characteristics such as economic status and level of education. According to evolutionary theory, A beautiful woman appears to be more capable of child-bearing, while a successful man exhibits resources necessary to provide for a family. The reason for deception is conceivably due to the benefits to gain from being more competitive by exaggerating qualities desirable by the opposite sex. When focusing research strictly on Chinese relations, desired characteristics in both males and females mirrored American studies. Women ranked the job and income of a man as the most important criteria, while men valued good looks only second to class label and political record of a woman (Townsend 1998).
Furthermore, cultural influence impacts the context in which dating is practiced. For instance, data from China suggests that an individual’s status plays a big factor in a culture that has undergone numerous shifts within the past century. John Townsend (1998) makes several noteworthy comments about the development of dating in Chinese culture. First, marriage is legally no longer allowed to be arranged by parents, as was previously practiced in traditional Chinese culture. Also, in a culture where the educational system is based on standardized tests, a beautiful woman may fail the test because she can rely on her good looks to attract a successful man, rather than her level of education. However, during the Cultural Revolution (1966-1976), women married men of lower rather than higher status due to the persecution of intellectual and wealthy individuals. Nevertheless, after the Cultural Revolution, low status could be a deal-breaker when looking for a dating or marriage partner because low status individuals no longer had the advantage over scholars and successful men and women. Even still, by appearing that she can bear healthy children for a man, a woman could make up for what she lacks by being physically attractive. This practice of hypergyny, or “marrying up,” examined in this study appears to be evident throughout Chinese culture.
Further comparison of Western and Chinese societies have found that culture, indeed, seems to be most influential in the development of romantic beliefs, styles, and relationships. When the dating attitudes and behaviors of American and Chinese college students were analyzed, Shenming Tang and Jiping Zuo (2000) found that Chinese students differ greatly from their American counterparts. The results indicated that Chinese culture was more conservative when it came to being in a relationship. In America, (2000) the average age to begin dating was 14.69, while average age in China was 18. Furthermore, 42% of Chinese agree that the main purpose of dating was to find a marriage partner, opposed to 14% of Americans. At the time the survey was conducted, 64% of American college students were dating versus 32% of Chinese college students. This great discrepancy is arguably a result of a more liberal dating culture in America. Parents and high school institutions encourage children to date. Also, students have access to the resources necessary to date including cars and jobs. In China, parents and high school institutions view a child’s education as superior and consider dating to be deviant behavior. Due to such an emphasis on education, having a job is not an option for most students and a car is still considered a luxury for many (Tang and Zuo: 75).
The more conservative culture is an interesting factor that plays into mate selection. Susan M. Moore and C. Leung (2001) conducted a cross-cultural analysis of Chinese living in Australia. The Chinese motivation for dating seems to stem from “a collectivist society [where] romance and love are seen as subordinate to the needs of the group (typically the family), and such activities must be bound by the appropriate and accepted social rules of the group” (2001:55). The factors that influence different dating and marriage criterion is an interesting concept to explore.
When comparing criteria used for selecting a dating partner verses a marriage partner, the standards appear to be lower in dating relationships. In marriage, not only does an individual desire good qualities in a partner, but homogamy, the practice of marrying within a given group through both ascribed and achieved statuses, is desirable as well. A study conducted by Debra L. Blackwell and Daniel T. Lichter (2004) indicates that the amount of shared characteristics increases with the level of commitment. This phenomenon is known as the “winnowing hypothesis” where criteria for a mate becomes stricter as relationships progress in seriousness. Among dating, cohabitating, and married couples, educational homogamy was the most desirable. However, when homogamy was not present, both men and women preferred to ‘date up’ rather than down. The study concludes that “a fair exchange or a ‘good match’ may also be less relevant for short-term relationships (like dating) than for longer or more committed relationships…Indeed the motivations for dating…differ from those for cohabitation…and marriage” (2004: 721).
Understanding love begins by examining the criteria used in mate selection, as well as looking at cultural influences and differences between dating and marriage relationships. Experts in the field of Sociology show that, in the modern dating and marriage world, individuals have a choice with whom they fall in love. At the same time, one’s culture may inadvertently play a role in the choice of dating and marriage partners. Finally, research indicates that standards fluctuate based on the level of commitment in the relationship.
Methods
In order to collect data on attitudes about dating and marriage among Chinese college students, I designed and administered a survey questionnaire. I found this most appropriate data collection method because the information is very standardized, allowing for consistency in an environment unfamiliar to the researcher. As a foreign student, the language barrier presents a challenge to construct clear and unambiguous questions. The questionnaires are uniform, which allows for a consistent form of data collection. Additionally an anonymous questionnaire is an ideal method for data collection because choosing a dating or marriage partner may be a sensitive topic for many Chinese. For instance, due to the One-child Policy, there will be a disproportionate ratio of men to women in the marriage. Since men were favored in traditional family systems as the care providers for their elderly parents, families were more likely to practice female infanticide (Chen 1984) In a society with an unbalanced sex ratio, when men reach marriage-age, choosing a mate may seem daunting or hopeless. Another group of people who may feel disadvantaged in relationships are those who have a disadvantaged background. Money, family life, or personal misfortunes might restrict them to sitting on the bench, while the others are playing the dating game, so to speak. It may be in a face-to-face interview people will be asked personal questions that they do not feel confident answering. An anonymous survey allows people to release such information in a safe way.
One downside to this data collection method is that there is a lack of diversity within the kinds of people participating. All attend a prestigious university and already have an advantageous status in society through their knowledge of English. All of these students are hard-working and have goals for attaining an education. The economic and social status of these college students may not reflect the average range for other college-aged adults. The dynamics of choosing a dating partner may be limited to a narrower point of view and life experience.
The survey was conducted at Sichuan University in Chengdu, China. The questionnaire was distributed to approximately 100 Chinese college-aged students in a single classroom setting, from these I selected questionnaires completed by 25 females and 25 males. Students’ ages range from 18 to 25 years old, with an average age of 21.42 years old. The class is composed of English-speaking Chinese students of a Chinese professor who teaches the Culture and Society class to American students. He was given instructions to keep the survey anonymous and to reiterate that the survey would have no impact on the students’ grade in the class. He could help with language clarification purposes only. The surveys were be returned to the researcher, and the responses were analyzed accordingly to determine what factors Chinese college students find most important for dating and marriage partners. The questionnaire asked students to provide basic background information, answer yes or no questions, as well as rank on a one to five scale, one being the lowest degree and five being the highest degree, the importance of different qualities when searching for either a dating or marriage partner. The answers were then averaged for analytical purposes. My survey takes into account physical attractiveness, level of education, economic and social status, and religion when selecting a mate.
Findings
In the process of analyzing my research, I observed the overall impact of different factors that influence Chinese college students when selecting dating and marriage partners. The criteria considered when choosing a mate include education, social status, religion, physical appearance, economic status, and parents’ opinion of partner. These were measured on a five point scale with 1 signifying “not important” and 5 signifying “very important.” Means were calculated for each scale. Furthermore, I looked at the differences between answers given by men and women.
Looking at the data as a whole for both men and women, the six different factors were averaged and then ranked according to amount of influence in comparison to the other factors. In dating relationships, education was ranked the most important at 3.26, followed by appearance at 3.2, economic status at 2.96, parents’ opinion at 2.8, social status at 2.54, and finally religion at 2.16. In marriage relationships, education was again ranked as most important with an average value of 3.62, followed by parents’ opinion at 3.46, economic status at 3.38, appearance at 3.1, social status at 3.02, and finally religion at 2.62. From dating to marriage relationships, the average value of importance increased in all six categories. This supports the winnowing hypothesis that criteria for selecting a mate narrows as relationships progress (Blackwell and Lichter (2004). However, parents’ opinion was valued over physical appearance in choosing a marriage partner, while the opposite is true for dating partner selection. Because physical appearance is valued over parents’ discretion in dating situations, this data does not necessarily support the traditional Chinese idea that “dating is instrumental in nature, a way by which a suitable marital partner can be found, and a prelude to marriage” (Tang and Zuo 2000: 76). Parents arranging marriages did not give their son or daughter a choice in mate selection, precluding a dating culture altogether. In fact, “marriages in the past were predominantly arranged by parents in which case the couple did not get to know or see each other before marriage” (Kejing 1991). The evidence in this survey demonstrates the shift in Chinese culture. The fact that physical appearance is valued over the parents’ opinion in a dating relationship counters Susan M. Moore and C. Leung’s observation that China is a collectivist society that puts the family before the self.
Next, I analyzed the factors that influence the selection of dating partners for both men and women. When comparing the responses of the sexes, females’ answers indicated education, social status, religion, and economic status were more important factors in finding a dating partner than compared to males’ responses. Males, on the other hand, only value physical appearance and parents’ opinion over female responses. For both men and women, religion was seen as the least important factor when selecting a dating partner. Interestingly, women ranked education as the most important, while men ranked parents’ opinion as most important, both with a value of 3.52. Furthermore, with both the men and women’s second most important factors ranking at an average of 3.4, women value economic status as much as men value physical appearance.
This data suggests that college-aged women in China find education and economic status to be the most important qualities in a potential dating partner, while men value appearance and parents’ approval over all other factors. These findings were supported by the research of Joseph Bena, Mary K. Anderson, and Richard L. Miller (2005) who stated that physical attraction is a sign that women can have healthy babies, while economic status indicates that a man can support a family. Further correlation was noted between the value men and women place on education and physical appearance. Women gave physical appearance an average value of 3, while men equally ranked education with an average of 3. These surprising similarities between women’s value of education and economic status and men’s value of parents’ approval and his partner’s physical appearance respectively are supported by research conducted by sinologists Martin Whyte and William Parish. They interviewed 133 emigrants in Hong Kong and found that, indeed, women primarily value the job and income of a man, while men rank good looks above other qualities (Townsend 1998).
When comparing factors that influence marriage partners, the findings are similar. As a whole, women had higher overall rankings than men in all categories, except for physical appearance. Even though this was the only category where men ranked higher than women, their value placed on appearance from dating to marriage decreased from 3.4 to 3.2. As one of the most important factors in a dating relationship, men place less importance on appearance, valuing it after education and parents’ opinion, when looking for a marriage partner. However, men only ranked education as .08 higher than physical appearance, suggesting that a woman’s education and physical attractiveness are about equal in value. This evidence parallels Townsend’s observation that failing standardized tests is less problematic for beautiful women because they could depend on their looks to attract a successful man (1998). Since both men and women ranked education very high, this supports Blackwell and Lichter’s findings that educational homogamy is the most desirable. Furthermore, women ranked appearance as important as men ranked economic status with an average of 3. From dating to marriage, women’s assessment of physical appearance remained exactly the same. The influence of the females’ parents’ opinion increases when looking for a marriage partner. In contrast, men indicate that their parents’ opinion have less importance in marriage. This discontinuity contradicts cultural influences where “love and romance are considered in the light of responsibility towards parents (Moore and Leung 2001). Again, religion was ranked as the least important factor for both men and women. However, men’s value of his wife’s social status was still lower than the value women gave for religion. For selecting marriage partners, all categories have higher rankings when compared to dating relationships.
Research also focuses on what age females and males find appropriate to begin dating. When asked what age is appropriate to begin dating, the average response for males and females was 16.94 years old. The mean for males was slightly lower at16.8 years. Although twelve of the twenty-five men reported an appropriate age to begin dating between 18 and 20 years old, five men reported ages between 12 and 14, which skewed the average. This data presents a considerably lower age when compared to Tang and Zuo’s research which report an average age of 18 for Chinese to begin dating. Furthermore, over half of the men answered that between 12 and 16 years old is an appropriate time to begin dating, which would permit dating practices in middle school and high school aged students. The current research presents a contradiction to Tang and Zuo’s claim that the Chinese culture values education so highly, that dating is considered deviant behavior. With the average appropriate dating age in America of 14.96, many Chinese men seem more inclined to agree with the American point of view (2000).
The females’ reported age to begin dating, while somewhat closer to past research’s findings, still represents a shift in dating culture. Women reported an average appropriate age to begin dating at 17.08 years old. This apparent decrease in age represents a transition to a younger dating generation. Similar to men, ten of the twenty-five women answered that between 13 and 16 would be an acceptable age to begin dating. The research indicates that dating is beginning to become acceptable during a time when most people do not have the educational or economic level to be self-sufficient. The data seems to shift towards a more relaxed dating culture as also indicated in Blackwell and Lichter’s findings. The researchers state that an equal or favorable exchange is not necessary in dating or short-term relationships. Dating relationships have different agendas when compared to more serious relationships (2004).
Conclusion
Overall, the research conducted on Sichuan University Campus in Chengdu, China has yielded several interesting findings. Dating and marriage criteria, as well as strategies for choosing a mate, all confirm the existing research indicating that certain factors are more important for males and females. Most notably, women value the economic status of a man, while men think physical appearance is very important. From a functionalist standpoint, the evidence from this research combined with outside sources point out that these criteria are influenced by the desire for healthy offspring and a stable life. On the other hand, the biggest discontinuity found is the challenge to traditional Chinese culture that is present in dating partner selection practices. A relaxed dating culture is emerging with a younger dating generation. In addition, the Chinese idea of filial piety derived from Confucianism (Liu 2008) is challenged when the traditional significance of the parents’ opinion is challenged. The averages for both men and women value physical appearance over their parents’ opinion in a dating relationship. This shows a trend in valuing the individual’s desires over those of the family in choosing a dating partner.
An important limitation about the research was the lack of diversity within the given sample. The questionnaire was limited only to a class of students studying economics within a single university in Sichuan province. Due to the prestige of the university, the sample group may not be a good representation of the opinions on dating and marriage partner selection for the entire college-aged Chinese population. Furthermore, the questionnaire asked students to indicate what age they felt was appropriate to begin dating, but did not ask the participants to provide an ideal marriage age. This would have been significant data because the researcher could compare the ages given to previous research findings. In all, the data suggests an interesting trend among the specified survey group.
References
Benz, Joseph J., Mary K. Anderson, and Richard L. Miller. 2005. “Attributions of Deception in Dating Situations.” Psychological Record 55(2): 305-314
Blackwell, Debra L. and Daniel T. Lichter. 2004. “Homogamy Among Dating, Cohabiting, and Married Couples.” The Sociological Quarterly 45(4): 719-737.
Kejinig, Dai. 1991. “The experience and status of Chinese rural women from observation of three age groups.” International Sociology 6(1): 5-23.
Moore, S., C. Leung. 2001. “Romantic beliefs, styles and relationships among young people from Chinese, Southern European, and Anglo-Australian backgrounds.” Asian Journal of Psychology 4: 53.
Tang, Shengming, Zuo Jiping, Tang S.M., Zuo J.P. 2000. “Dating attitudes and behaviors of American and Chinese college students.” The Social Science Journal, 37(1):67-78.
Townsend, John. 1998. “Are Men and Women Alike Around the Globe?” What women want-what men want: why the sexes still see love & commitment so differently. New York: Oxford University Press.
Mao Considered Himself a Counter-Confucianist
Mao Considered Himself a Counter-Confucianist: By Crystal Swetz
"There are not a few people who are irresponsible in their work, preferring the light to the heavy, shoving the heavy loads on to others and choosing the easy ones for themselves. At every turn they think of themselves before others. When they make some small contribution, they swell with pride and brag about it for fear that others will not know. They feel no warmth towards comrades and the people are cold, indifferent and apathetic. In fact such people are not Communists, or at least cannot be counted as true Communists." -Mao Zedong
In a certain ideal society, the part is inferior to the whole. The direct needs or desires of the individual are less important than the needs of others. Humankind’s obligation in life is fulfilling duties to society. An acceptable life is exemplified through leadership partnered with such ethics. In fact, these rulers attain such a position because it is his or her destiny mandated by Heaven. Furthermore, in this society, there is a certain reverence for authority figures; respect is expected to be given, unreciprocated, by younger, less experienced individuals. This ideal insists that one must compromise his or her own comfort, safety, or even life in the name of filial piety. Finally, this model system embraces a certain cultivation of self in which learning to be a proper human being consists of becoming a gentleman with “inner integrity, righteousness, loyalty, altruism or reciprocity, and above all love. Such a gentleman should be aesthetically refined, morally excellent, and religiously profound.”
The most studious scholar of Chinese culture would recognize these aforementioned qualities as Confucian principles. Alas, it may come as a surprise to this intellectual that Confucianist ideology was not the intended aim at all. Instead, the aim upon which will be expounded upon lies within the psyche of Mao Zedong. While he claimed himself a counter-Confucianist, the philosophies that were entrenched in Mao Zedong’s mind were in fact very Confucian in nature. In line with Confucian beliefs “Mao Zedong believed that right thinking was integral to right conduct. He therefore gave enormous emphasis to matters of ideology and to the importance of ideological education to the people.”
Confucius lived during China’s Warring States period as a self-educated philosopher. He traveled around China, preaching his philosophy that he claimed would provide structure and success in society. Confucius was also a great teacher and theorist whose ideas have permeated all of eastern Asia. From this influence, Mao took Confucian ideals and distorted them to fit his own political agenda. He used collectivism to perpetuate his own self-glorification. Furthermore, Mao took advantage of collectivist-minded peasants as observed in the disastrous Great Leap Forward. Next, as demonstrated by the Red Guards, he inverted the idea of respecting parents to mean, instead, obedience to the motherland and the fathers of the Communist Party. Finally, through mass movements, rather than self-cultivation and education, Mao sought to eradicate old ways of thinking, including Confucianism. He lived his own life in hypocrisy when he told others to live humbly, while he accumulated wealth and materialism. If Mao Zedong’s ideas were a mirror, Confucius would see a disfigured, unrecognizable image staring back at him.
Mao sought unity in bringing up a Communist-minded society in which he achieved a god-like status. Instead of serving the people, Mao’s self-glorification allowed him to wield great power as an individual. This strictly goes against the Confucian idea of sacrificing the self. In addition, because leadership is mandated in heaven, he who is given power can be subject to criticism. However, his own superiority led to the same self-righteous attitude that Mao warned the Communist party about. In his speech to the Second Plenary Session of the Seventh Central Committee of the Communist Party of China, he cautioned “with victory, certain moods may grow within the Party—arrogance, the airs of a self-styled hero, inertia and unwillingness to make progress, love of pleasure and distaste for continued hard living.” Mao, became so arrogant that he eventually regarded his own opinion above all others, including concerned doctors worried about his well-being. Mao enjoyed a status where his book of quotations was treated like a bible. In fact, people developed religious rituals around his picture and red book. The Communist Party persuaded people to “regard Mao as virtually a god—and by 1971, Chinese citizens typically bowed three times before Mao’s picture each morning and evening, ‘reporting’ the day’s events and their thoughts to the Chairman at each evening ablution.” On Mao’s behalf, how advantageous it was for him to have an entire nation ready to do whatever he requested! Mao manipulated Confucian principals of self-sacrifice, viewing people as disposable beings. In order to achieve his agenda, Mao “demonstrated his commitment to revolution, his skill in mobilizing the Chinese against each other, and his readiness to sacrifice the lives of large numbers of people.” He showed a lack of concern for others, just so long as his desires were carried out.
A perfect example of Mao’s attitude was represented in the Great Leap Forward. He took the collectivist ideology to an extreme to bring about mass production. Mao viewed this movement as enabling the peasants to be the backbone of the nation’s agricultural and industrial output. China wanted to emulate Soviet Russia’s strategy, in which Stalin saw fast industrial growth among the poor rural areas. The government assembled “people’s communes” in hope of organizing successful party-run production units. This new system was embraced by the people with a new vigor, which blinded everyone to its shortcomings. Such an enthusiasm was expected to be met with great success. Therefore, grain output was exaggerated by government officials in order to seem more flourishing. As a result, officials even wanted to leave one-third of the arable land fallow to curb the supposed excessive amount of production by the communes. The results were disastrous and all came at the expense of the disposable peasants. About 30 million peasants died of starvation. Instead of welcoming criticism, as a Confucian-minded leader would do in an attempt to rectify a failed policy or leadership, Mao purged government officials who spoke against him. He even claimed that if the entire party turned against him, he would “take to the hills, raise another army, and overthrow the CCP!” Needless to say, Mao’s threat was sufficient for the officials to side with him and punish the outliers.
Mao Zedong’s boundless power also became evident among China’s young people in a twisted practice of filial piety. In a Confucian society, children must pay respect to elders through obedience, loyalty, prayer to ancestors, have sons to carry on the family name, and do whatever means necessary to show reverence to their authority. Mao expected the same pious devotion from Communist Party members. In Confucianism, looking towards the future was ambiguous and untrustworthy because the greatest wisdom is gained from ancient knowledge. However, Mao saw looking backwards as resisting progress. The Red Guards became his pious sons and daughters and were the hands and feet of his Communist agenda. They “took to the street, in the slogan of the day, ‘to destroy the four olds.’ This translated into destroying old culture by raiding houses, burning books and antiques, beating and humiliating people who seemed not to be in the spirit of things, and killing those who tried to resist.” Mao did nothing to stop the mobilization of violence and the sudden power beholden to these young radicals. In his mind, people were working as a collective whole to overcome the evils of old society. Anyone working in the name of Communism, young or old, rich or poor, was considered equal. Mao even stated that “All our cadres, whatever their rank, are servants of the people, and whatever we do is serve the people.” This not only undermined the concept of filial piety by eliminating hierarchies, but also emphasized serving the Party before the family. Mao demanded “the unthinkable in Confucianism: that youths rebel against their elders…stressed activism and rejection of the old (one of his favorite slogans was, ‘Smash the old, establish the new’).” This idea runs directly contrary to Confucianist ideals.
Mao’s commission of mass movements entirely countered the Confucian principals of human cultivation and restraint. In his eyes, radical revolutions were the only way to make progress. He did not believe that people should stand aside and passively allow themselves to be ruled. Mao “abhorred the Confucian notion that rulers know what to do because of their mastery of the classical doctrine and that therefore the poorly educated masses must simply obey their superiors. This idea produced…just the opposite of the activist society and dynamic leadership that [he] believed were critical to the success of the revolution.” Mao employed brainwashing strategies, borrowed from the Soviets, which would be conducive to the creation of a like-minded Communist population. It began by being divided into study groups, in which people were given reading materials. Next, they had to apply the doctrines to his or her own life and find self-criticism from within. The brainwashing would be complete when the individuals wrote a confession that was accepted by the rest of the group. Such practices targeted the Chinese values of “saving face, protecting one’s innermost thinking, and above all, identifying with a group.”
While cleansing the mind was one important way of controlling the cultivation of self, physical force was used when necessary as evident in the Anti-Rightist Movement in 1957. Mao commanded that anyone who may get in the way of “establishing the new” had to be purged. As a result, children turned against parents, students condemned teachers and intellectuals, and the general populous rebelled against authority. In fact, the “school-age generation of China in the mid-1960s had been taught to demonize and dehumanize whole classes of people and to tolerate and celebrate gross violence, even sadism, against them.” Some people’s ideas were supposedly dangerous because they countered Party ideology. Heaven forbid if anyone tries to interfere with the agenda of Mao Zedong! While people condemned as anti-rightist were executed in the streets, still shouting “long live Mao Zedong,” the Chairman did not practice the same modesty and self-sacrifice for the greater good of society that he preached to his fellow countrymen. In reality, Mao did not restrain himself. Even though he “stressed the importance of simple living…Mao made extensive use of lavish residences built for his exclusive pleasure around the country.” If Mao’s most basic principals do not reflect the quintessential doctrines he teaches, then he can only expect the same amount of corruption to emanate from a monster of his own creation.
Confucianist ideals certainly influenced Mao Zedong’s own Communist philosophy. The old, fundamental doctrines emphasizing the individual benefitting the whole society, filial piety, and cultivation of self were corrupted to fit Mao’s new and progressive agendas. The problem arose when Mao’s ideals attempted to redefine traditional values that have been engrained in a society for thousands of years. A bad seed cannot produce good fruit. Rooted in Confucianism, Mao’s bad seed infested China’s natural, flourishing roots. He created a new, insidious species that disguised itself with Confucian morals, only to later suffocate society with its unyielding strength.
"There are not a few people who are irresponsible in their work, preferring the light to the heavy, shoving the heavy loads on to others and choosing the easy ones for themselves. At every turn they think of themselves before others. When they make some small contribution, they swell with pride and brag about it for fear that others will not know. They feel no warmth towards comrades and the people are cold, indifferent and apathetic. In fact such people are not Communists, or at least cannot be counted as true Communists." -Mao Zedong
In a certain ideal society, the part is inferior to the whole. The direct needs or desires of the individual are less important than the needs of others. Humankind’s obligation in life is fulfilling duties to society. An acceptable life is exemplified through leadership partnered with such ethics. In fact, these rulers attain such a position because it is his or her destiny mandated by Heaven. Furthermore, in this society, there is a certain reverence for authority figures; respect is expected to be given, unreciprocated, by younger, less experienced individuals. This ideal insists that one must compromise his or her own comfort, safety, or even life in the name of filial piety. Finally, this model system embraces a certain cultivation of self in which learning to be a proper human being consists of becoming a gentleman with “inner integrity, righteousness, loyalty, altruism or reciprocity, and above all love. Such a gentleman should be aesthetically refined, morally excellent, and religiously profound.”
The most studious scholar of Chinese culture would recognize these aforementioned qualities as Confucian principles. Alas, it may come as a surprise to this intellectual that Confucianist ideology was not the intended aim at all. Instead, the aim upon which will be expounded upon lies within the psyche of Mao Zedong. While he claimed himself a counter-Confucianist, the philosophies that were entrenched in Mao Zedong’s mind were in fact very Confucian in nature. In line with Confucian beliefs “Mao Zedong believed that right thinking was integral to right conduct. He therefore gave enormous emphasis to matters of ideology and to the importance of ideological education to the people.”
Confucius lived during China’s Warring States period as a self-educated philosopher. He traveled around China, preaching his philosophy that he claimed would provide structure and success in society. Confucius was also a great teacher and theorist whose ideas have permeated all of eastern Asia. From this influence, Mao took Confucian ideals and distorted them to fit his own political agenda. He used collectivism to perpetuate his own self-glorification. Furthermore, Mao took advantage of collectivist-minded peasants as observed in the disastrous Great Leap Forward. Next, as demonstrated by the Red Guards, he inverted the idea of respecting parents to mean, instead, obedience to the motherland and the fathers of the Communist Party. Finally, through mass movements, rather than self-cultivation and education, Mao sought to eradicate old ways of thinking, including Confucianism. He lived his own life in hypocrisy when he told others to live humbly, while he accumulated wealth and materialism. If Mao Zedong’s ideas were a mirror, Confucius would see a disfigured, unrecognizable image staring back at him.
Mao sought unity in bringing up a Communist-minded society in which he achieved a god-like status. Instead of serving the people, Mao’s self-glorification allowed him to wield great power as an individual. This strictly goes against the Confucian idea of sacrificing the self. In addition, because leadership is mandated in heaven, he who is given power can be subject to criticism. However, his own superiority led to the same self-righteous attitude that Mao warned the Communist party about. In his speech to the Second Plenary Session of the Seventh Central Committee of the Communist Party of China, he cautioned “with victory, certain moods may grow within the Party—arrogance, the airs of a self-styled hero, inertia and unwillingness to make progress, love of pleasure and distaste for continued hard living.” Mao, became so arrogant that he eventually regarded his own opinion above all others, including concerned doctors worried about his well-being. Mao enjoyed a status where his book of quotations was treated like a bible. In fact, people developed religious rituals around his picture and red book. The Communist Party persuaded people to “regard Mao as virtually a god—and by 1971, Chinese citizens typically bowed three times before Mao’s picture each morning and evening, ‘reporting’ the day’s events and their thoughts to the Chairman at each evening ablution.” On Mao’s behalf, how advantageous it was for him to have an entire nation ready to do whatever he requested! Mao manipulated Confucian principals of self-sacrifice, viewing people as disposable beings. In order to achieve his agenda, Mao “demonstrated his commitment to revolution, his skill in mobilizing the Chinese against each other, and his readiness to sacrifice the lives of large numbers of people.” He showed a lack of concern for others, just so long as his desires were carried out.
A perfect example of Mao’s attitude was represented in the Great Leap Forward. He took the collectivist ideology to an extreme to bring about mass production. Mao viewed this movement as enabling the peasants to be the backbone of the nation’s agricultural and industrial output. China wanted to emulate Soviet Russia’s strategy, in which Stalin saw fast industrial growth among the poor rural areas. The government assembled “people’s communes” in hope of organizing successful party-run production units. This new system was embraced by the people with a new vigor, which blinded everyone to its shortcomings. Such an enthusiasm was expected to be met with great success. Therefore, grain output was exaggerated by government officials in order to seem more flourishing. As a result, officials even wanted to leave one-third of the arable land fallow to curb the supposed excessive amount of production by the communes. The results were disastrous and all came at the expense of the disposable peasants. About 30 million peasants died of starvation. Instead of welcoming criticism, as a Confucian-minded leader would do in an attempt to rectify a failed policy or leadership, Mao purged government officials who spoke against him. He even claimed that if the entire party turned against him, he would “take to the hills, raise another army, and overthrow the CCP!” Needless to say, Mao’s threat was sufficient for the officials to side with him and punish the outliers.
Mao Zedong’s boundless power also became evident among China’s young people in a twisted practice of filial piety. In a Confucian society, children must pay respect to elders through obedience, loyalty, prayer to ancestors, have sons to carry on the family name, and do whatever means necessary to show reverence to their authority. Mao expected the same pious devotion from Communist Party members. In Confucianism, looking towards the future was ambiguous and untrustworthy because the greatest wisdom is gained from ancient knowledge. However, Mao saw looking backwards as resisting progress. The Red Guards became his pious sons and daughters and were the hands and feet of his Communist agenda. They “took to the street, in the slogan of the day, ‘to destroy the four olds.’ This translated into destroying old culture by raiding houses, burning books and antiques, beating and humiliating people who seemed not to be in the spirit of things, and killing those who tried to resist.” Mao did nothing to stop the mobilization of violence and the sudden power beholden to these young radicals. In his mind, people were working as a collective whole to overcome the evils of old society. Anyone working in the name of Communism, young or old, rich or poor, was considered equal. Mao even stated that “All our cadres, whatever their rank, are servants of the people, and whatever we do is serve the people.” This not only undermined the concept of filial piety by eliminating hierarchies, but also emphasized serving the Party before the family. Mao demanded “the unthinkable in Confucianism: that youths rebel against their elders…stressed activism and rejection of the old (one of his favorite slogans was, ‘Smash the old, establish the new’).” This idea runs directly contrary to Confucianist ideals.
Mao’s commission of mass movements entirely countered the Confucian principals of human cultivation and restraint. In his eyes, radical revolutions were the only way to make progress. He did not believe that people should stand aside and passively allow themselves to be ruled. Mao “abhorred the Confucian notion that rulers know what to do because of their mastery of the classical doctrine and that therefore the poorly educated masses must simply obey their superiors. This idea produced…just the opposite of the activist society and dynamic leadership that [he] believed were critical to the success of the revolution.” Mao employed brainwashing strategies, borrowed from the Soviets, which would be conducive to the creation of a like-minded Communist population. It began by being divided into study groups, in which people were given reading materials. Next, they had to apply the doctrines to his or her own life and find self-criticism from within. The brainwashing would be complete when the individuals wrote a confession that was accepted by the rest of the group. Such practices targeted the Chinese values of “saving face, protecting one’s innermost thinking, and above all, identifying with a group.”
While cleansing the mind was one important way of controlling the cultivation of self, physical force was used when necessary as evident in the Anti-Rightist Movement in 1957. Mao commanded that anyone who may get in the way of “establishing the new” had to be purged. As a result, children turned against parents, students condemned teachers and intellectuals, and the general populous rebelled against authority. In fact, the “school-age generation of China in the mid-1960s had been taught to demonize and dehumanize whole classes of people and to tolerate and celebrate gross violence, even sadism, against them.” Some people’s ideas were supposedly dangerous because they countered Party ideology. Heaven forbid if anyone tries to interfere with the agenda of Mao Zedong! While people condemned as anti-rightist were executed in the streets, still shouting “long live Mao Zedong,” the Chairman did not practice the same modesty and self-sacrifice for the greater good of society that he preached to his fellow countrymen. In reality, Mao did not restrain himself. Even though he “stressed the importance of simple living…Mao made extensive use of lavish residences built for his exclusive pleasure around the country.” If Mao’s most basic principals do not reflect the quintessential doctrines he teaches, then he can only expect the same amount of corruption to emanate from a monster of his own creation.
Confucianist ideals certainly influenced Mao Zedong’s own Communist philosophy. The old, fundamental doctrines emphasizing the individual benefitting the whole society, filial piety, and cultivation of self were corrupted to fit Mao’s new and progressive agendas. The problem arose when Mao’s ideals attempted to redefine traditional values that have been engrained in a society for thousands of years. A bad seed cannot produce good fruit. Rooted in Confucianism, Mao’s bad seed infested China’s natural, flourishing roots. He created a new, insidious species that disguised itself with Confucian morals, only to later suffocate society with its unyielding strength.
Wednesday, December 3, 2008
Chongqing
Last weekend, Bruce and I went to Chongqing. I stopped there briefly in September on my way to Chengdu, but did not get the chance to explore the city. There was so much to do and so little time.
We arrived in Chongqing by train on Friday afternoon. I scored big on finding the perfect hotel. We stayed in a four-star hotel for 29 US dollars a night. I love how cheap China can be!! Anyway, hotpot originated in Chongqing, so everywhere we went we were surrounded by this famous Sichuan cuisine. The first day I was feeling a little sick, so we avoided it. I actually felt sicker the second day (and I've gotten progressively more congested and icky), so we never ended up eating it. Needless to say, I am not even the least bit heartbroken for not eating food cooked in a pot of boiling oil and spicy peppers. I found the MOST AMAZING STARBUCKS I HAVE EVER SEEN! The place was 3 stories and super plush. This Seattle girl was very impressed, indeed. The next day we walked across a bridge that went over the Yangtze River. One the other side we found this amusement park where I had an artist draw a portrait of me. It didn't look like me at all. I think he made my neck too long and I looked Russian or something... That night, we went on a 2 hour river cruise to check out the fantastic city skyline reflected on the river. We met a cool American couple who took way better pictures than me. Also, I don't know why, but I have noticed a trend of old Chinese men wanting to take pictures with young American girls. I shudder to think where my face is somewhere, unbeknown to me, floating around in cyberspace. I impressed the Americans by ordering the man a beer and asking where the bathroom is... I know. My skills astound me too ;)
When we got back to the hotel, we went to the bar/nightclub/karaoke on the 8th floor. The owner came up to us and asked where I was from. She offered me and Bruce free beers on the house, so I suffered through a Budweiser. I washed it down with a coffee liquor on the the rocks. I forgot my money in my other pants, so it was embarrassing to have to make Bruce go get my money :( Oh well...
We left Sunday morning, feeling a little sick, but glad that we went on the trip and happy to have met some interesting people as always.
We arrived in Chongqing by train on Friday afternoon. I scored big on finding the perfect hotel. We stayed in a four-star hotel for 29 US dollars a night. I love how cheap China can be!! Anyway, hotpot originated in Chongqing, so everywhere we went we were surrounded by this famous Sichuan cuisine. The first day I was feeling a little sick, so we avoided it. I actually felt sicker the second day (and I've gotten progressively more congested and icky), so we never ended up eating it. Needless to say, I am not even the least bit heartbroken for not eating food cooked in a pot of boiling oil and spicy peppers. I found the MOST AMAZING STARBUCKS I HAVE EVER SEEN! The place was 3 stories and super plush. This Seattle girl was very impressed, indeed. The next day we walked across a bridge that went over the Yangtze River. One the other side we found this amusement park where I had an artist draw a portrait of me. It didn't look like me at all. I think he made my neck too long and I looked Russian or something... That night, we went on a 2 hour river cruise to check out the fantastic city skyline reflected on the river. We met a cool American couple who took way better pictures than me. Also, I don't know why, but I have noticed a trend of old Chinese men wanting to take pictures with young American girls. I shudder to think where my face is somewhere, unbeknown to me, floating around in cyberspace. I impressed the Americans by ordering the man a beer and asking where the bathroom is... I know. My skills astound me too ;)
When we got back to the hotel, we went to the bar/nightclub/karaoke on the 8th floor. The owner came up to us and asked where I was from. She offered me and Bruce free beers on the house, so I suffered through a Budweiser. I washed it down with a coffee liquor on the the rocks. I forgot my money in my other pants, so it was embarrassing to have to make Bruce go get my money :( Oh well...
We left Sunday morning, feeling a little sick, but glad that we went on the trip and happy to have met some interesting people as always.
Going to Church
I have decided to dedicate an entire blog about my church experience in China. I don't care what I say in this blog. I am leaving China soon anyway, so it can't hurt anyone and I'm not going to preach at you. I am only talking about my own personal experience.
On most Sundays when I am not off on a weekend trip or whatnot, I go to one of the legal churches about half an hour's bike ride from my school. The service is a more traditional protestant service, with hymnals and reciting the apostle's creed and Lord's prayer. It is really cool to hear that stuff in a different language in unison. It is still as powerful as in English. When the pastor prays, people interject "amen" throughout the prayer, just like in America. Despite the fact that the sermon was in a language I can barely understand because the words are not common words used in regular speech, it is still great to be in fellowship with brothers and sister in Christ. After church is over, Michael, Bruce, Roselle, Peter, some others, and I usually go out to eat lunch. It is always a great time because Roselle and Peter are from New Zealand, so they speak both English and Chinese. Roselle is a crack up. She has funny facials expressions when she speaks Chinese and is so full of life!
My Chinese friend whose name is also Sarah (we call her "Chinese Sarah" so we don't get her confused with my sister) invited me to go to her underground church. Sarah, Bruce, and I have been there a few times now and Bruce says that it is much more meaningful than our morning church (yep, I go to church twice in one day!). Bruce really likes the worship songs a lot more than the hymns too. The first time we went there, after the service the people took us to the back room and told the "newbies" about the fall of man and how we have a savior who paid the price for our sins. The woman telling us all of this asked each individual if they would like to pray and become a Christian. As we prayed I felt the holy spirit and got these "spiritual tingles" even though I couldn't really understand what she was saying. This was an important moment for me because it was amazing for me to experience the holy spirit defy language barriers! Praise God!
On most Sundays when I am not off on a weekend trip or whatnot, I go to one of the legal churches about half an hour's bike ride from my school. The service is a more traditional protestant service, with hymnals and reciting the apostle's creed and Lord's prayer. It is really cool to hear that stuff in a different language in unison. It is still as powerful as in English. When the pastor prays, people interject "amen" throughout the prayer, just like in America. Despite the fact that the sermon was in a language I can barely understand because the words are not common words used in regular speech, it is still great to be in fellowship with brothers and sister in Christ. After church is over, Michael, Bruce, Roselle, Peter, some others, and I usually go out to eat lunch. It is always a great time because Roselle and Peter are from New Zealand, so they speak both English and Chinese. Roselle is a crack up. She has funny facials expressions when she speaks Chinese and is so full of life!
My Chinese friend whose name is also Sarah (we call her "Chinese Sarah" so we don't get her confused with my sister) invited me to go to her underground church. Sarah, Bruce, and I have been there a few times now and Bruce says that it is much more meaningful than our morning church (yep, I go to church twice in one day!). Bruce really likes the worship songs a lot more than the hymns too. The first time we went there, after the service the people took us to the back room and told the "newbies" about the fall of man and how we have a savior who paid the price for our sins. The woman telling us all of this asked each individual if they would like to pray and become a Christian. As we prayed I felt the holy spirit and got these "spiritual tingles" even though I couldn't really understand what she was saying. This was an important moment for me because it was amazing for me to experience the holy spirit defy language barriers! Praise God!
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